B    3    3^ 


THERURAL 
SCIENCE 

SERIES  I 


Hural  Science 

EDITED  BY  L,  H.  BAILBY 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


A  TREATISE  UPON  THE  NATURE  AND  QUALITIES  OF 

DAIRY  MILK  AND  THE  MANUFACTURE 

OF  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE 


BY 

HENRY  H.  WING 

PROFESSOR    OF    ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY     IN    THE 
CORNELL     UNIVERSITY 


REVISED   AND   ENLARGED^    :\ 


gorfe 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:   MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1913 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1897  AND  1913 
By  HENRY  H.  WING 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  February,  1897 

Reprinted  with  corrections  February,  1898,  July,  1899,  July,  1900.  January,  1902, 

February,  1903.  January  and  September,  1904,  July,  1905,  April,  1906, 

August,  1907,  June,  1908,  January  and  July,  1909,  July,  1911 

New  edition,  1913 


.fDount  fjleastant 

J.  Horace  McFarland  Co 
Harrisburg,  Fa. 


Ta 


AS  A   SLIGHT  TRIBUTE  TO  THE  CAREFUL  TRAINING  AND 

WISE  AND   SYMPATHETIC  COUNSEL  THAT 

SERVED   TO   INSTIL  IN  THREE   FARM  BOYS  A   LOVE   FOR  ALL 
THAT   PERTAINS  TO  FARM   LIFE 

little  tttxxrk  is  affEttixmateIg   inscribed 


263664 


PREFACE 

THE  revolution  in  dairy  practice  brought  about 
by  the  introduction  of  the  centrifugal  cream  sepa- 
rator and  the  Babcock  test  for  fat  and  by  a  more 
definite  knowledge  regarding  the  various  fermenta- 
tions that  so  greatly  influence  milk  and  the  manu- 
facture of  its  products,  has  seemed  to  demand  the 
publication  of  a  small  handbook  that  shall  give 
to  the  dairyman,  and  particularly  to  the  dairy 
student,  in  simple,  concise  form,  the  principles  un- 
derlying modern  dairy  practice.  In  attempting  to 
meet  this  demand,  I  have  had  largely  in  view  the 
needs  of  my  own  students,  while  still  keeping  in 
mind  the  general  dairy  reader. 

In  the  collation  of  the  information,  where  so 
many  points  are  still  unsettled,  it  is  of  course  dif- 
ficult in  all  cases  to  distinguish  fact  from  conjec- 
ture. The  aim  has  been  at  all  times  to  give 
the  present  state  of  knowledge  as  supported  by 
the  weight  of  evidence  and  the  opinions  of  those 
whose  authority  is  highest.  In  how  far  this  has 
been  successful  time  alone  can  tell.  It  would  be 

(vii) 


viii  Preface 

too   much  to    hope   that   every   conclusion   will    stand 
the    test   of   further   investigation  *  and   experience. 

Dairy  practice  in  the  United  States  owes  much 
to  the  investigations  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations.  Of  the  results  of.  their  labor  free  use 
has  been  made  in  various  ways,  and  in  many  cases 
without  specific  mention  at  the  particular  place. 
Without  wishing  to  make  distinctions,  particular 
acknowledgment  is  here  rendered  to  the  reports 
and  bulletins  of  the  Stations  in  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Connecticut  (Storrs),  Canada,  New 
York  (State),  New  York  (Cornell),  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin  and  Minne- 
sota. For  those  who  wish  to  make  more  extended 
investigations,  a  bibliography  is  added  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, giving  references  to  many  bulletins. 

Thanks  are  due  to  D.  H.  Burrell  &  Co.,  the 
Vermont  Farm  Machine  Co.,  the  DeLaval  Separator 
Co.,  the  Star  Milk  Cooler  Co.,  the  Champion  Milk 
Cooler  Co.,  J.  F.  Hodgkin,  and  F.  B.  Fargo  &  Co., 
for  the  use  of  electrotypes. 

Acknowledgment  is  also  due  my  colleagues, 
Messrs.  Cavanaugh,  Durand,  Hall  and  VanWagenen, 
for  valuable  assistance,  and  to  Professor  L.  H. 
Bailey  for  much  friendly  counsel  and  many  useful 
suggestions. 

HENRY   H.  WING. 

CORNELL,  UNIVERSITY  DAIRY, 
January    1897. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   NEW  EDITION 

IN  THE  preparation  of  a  new  edition  of  Milk  and 
Its  Products,  in  addition  to  making  such  changes  as 
are  necessary  to  bring  the  body  of  the  work  up-to- 
date,  it  has  seemed  well  to  add  chapters  on  dairy  cat- 
tle and  the  production  of  milk,  on  certified  milk,  and 
on  ice-cream  manufacture.  Brief  directions  for  sim- 
ple bacteriological  determinations  have  also  been 
added.  The  latter  has  been  prepared  by  my  daughter, 
Lois  W.  Wing,  late  assistant  in  dairy  bacteriology,  in 
the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture.  The 
chapter  on  certified  milk  was  written  by  Mr.  George 
C.  Watson,  formerly  manager  of  the  Tully  Farms, 
and  grateful  acknowledgment  is  hereby  made  to  both 
for  their  assistance. 

HENRY   H.  WING. 

New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture 
Cornell  University,  July,  1912 


(ix) 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
SECRETION  OF  MILK 

Milk  defined — Mammary  glands — Udder — Internal  structure  of 
udder  and  teats — Ultimate  follicle — Secretion  of  milk —  Incen- 
tives to  secretion — Amount  and  duration  of  flow — Effect  of 
succeeding  pregnancy — Incomplete  removal  of  milk — Reg- 
ularity and  frequency  of  milking — Control  of  animal  over 
secretion. 
/  Pages  1-15 

CHAPTER  II 
COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

Milk  constituents — Colostrum — Specific  gravity — The  fats — The 
volatile  fats — The  non- volatile  fats — The  albuminoids — The 
sugar — The  ash — Other  constituents — Variations  in  quality 
of  milk. 

Pages  16-34 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  PRODUCTION  OF  MILK — DAIRY  CATTLE 

Milk  a  maternal  function — The  cow  the  only  commercial  milk 
producer — Factors  in  the  production  of  milk — The  lactation 
period — The  operation  of  milking — Relation  of  form  to  capac- 
ity— Value  of  records  of  production — Necessity  for  keeping 
records — Food  as  a  factor  in  milk  production — The  ideal 
ration — Selection  of  breed — Pure  breds  and  grades — Main- 
tenance of  the  dairy  herd — Selection  of  the  bull — Management 
of  the  bull — Grading  up  the  herd — Major  and  minor  dairy 
breeds — Jerseys — Guernseys — Holstein-Friesians  — Ayrshires — 
Shorthorns— Red  Polled  — Brown  Swiss  — Dutch  Belted  — 
Devons. 

Pages  35-76 

(xi) 


xii  Contents 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  TESTING  OF  MILK 

Gravimetric  anaylsis — History  of  milk  tests — Cream  gauges — 
Specific  gravity — Lactometers — Churn  tests —  Lactobutyrom- 
eter — Pioscope —  Lactoscope — Soxhlet's  Method — Lactocrite 
— Fjord's  control  apparatus — Milk  tests  in  the  United  States — 
Short's  method — Method  of  Failyer  and  Willard — Parsons' 
method — Iowa  Station  test — Cochran's  method — Babcock  test 
— Beimling  test — Gerber's  method — Butyrometer — Details  of 
Babcock  test — The  centrifugal  machine — The  glassware — 
Sampling  the  milk — Composite  sampling — Making  the  test — 
The  acid — Whirling — Reading — Cleaning  the  glassware. 

Pages  77-107 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  FERMENTS  AND  FERMENTATIONS  OF  MILK  AND 
THEIR  CONTROL 

Tendency  to  undergo  change — Germs  of  fermentation — Bacteria — 
Presence  of  bacteria  in  milk — Kinds  of  bacteria  in  milk — 
Fermentations  of  milk — Relation  of  milk  bacteria  to  the 
human  system — Lactic  fermentations — Fermentations  affect- 
ing the  albuminoids — Butyric  fermentations — Control  of  fer- 
mentations— Prevention  of  infection — Holding  at  low  tem- 
peratures— Destruction  of  germs  in  milk — Pasteurization — 
Selection  of  milk  for  pasteurization. 

Pages  108-124 

CHAPTER  VI 

DETERMINATION  6r  BACTERIA  IN  MILK 

Bacteria  as  a  measure  of  dirt  in  milk — The  laboratory — Apparatus  — 
x    Media — Sterilization — Cleaning  glassware — Procedure  for  plat- 
ing— Checks. 

Pages  125-134 

CHAPTER  VII 
MARKET  MILK 

Milk  for  consumption — Cleanliness — Treatment  after  drawing — 
Aeration — Delivery — Bad  flavors  in  milk — Quality  of  milk 
for  consumption— Control  of  milk  supply — Cream  for  con- 
sumption— Pasteurized  cream — Quality  of  cream. 

Pages  135-148 


Contents  xiii 

CHAPTER  VIII 
CERTIFIED  MILK 

Definition — Origin  of  certified  milk — Standards — Production — 
Sanitary  stables — Selection  of  the  cows — Care  of  the  cows — 
Care  of  the  stable — Milking — Care  of  utensils — Cost  of  pro- 
duction. 

Pages  149-162 

CHAPTER  IX 
SEPARATION  OF  CREAM 

Gravity  creaming — Shallow-pan  creaming — Deep  setting'  system — 
Centrifugal  separation — Conditions  affecting  completeness  of 
separation — Conditions  affecting  the  relative  amount  of 
skimmed  milk  and  cream — Contrivances  in  the  bowl  to  increase 
the  efficiency  of  separation — Mechanical  conditions  affecting 
separation — Efficiency  of  separation  in  centrifugal  machines — 
Desirable  and  undesirable  features  of  a  separator. 

Pages  163-194 

CHAPTER  X 
THE  RIPENING  OF  CREAM 

Means  of  producing  lactic  acid — Temperature  of  ripening — Amount 
of  acid  necessary — Acid  tests — Determination  of  lactic  acid 
in  milk  and  cream — Further  effects  of  ripening — Churning 
cream  of  different  degrees  of  ripeness — Bad  effects  of  over- 
ripening. 

Pages  195-209 

CHAPTER  XI 
CHURNING 

Viscosity  of  the  milk — Ripeness  of  cream — Temperature — Nature 
of  agitation — Quality  of  the  globules  of  fat — End  of  churn- 
ing— Difficult  churning. 

Pages  210-219 

CHAPTER  XII 
FINISHING  AND  MARKETING  BUTTER 

Washing  the  butter — Working — Salting — Brine  salting — Pack- 
ing and  marketing — Composition  and  quality  of  butter. 

Pages  220-232 


xiv  Contents 

CHAPTER  XIII 
MILK  FOR  CHEESE  MAKING 

Theory  of  cheese  making — Quality  of  milk  for  cheese  making — 
Loss  of  fat — Cooling — Aeration — Ripening — Rennet  tests — 
Degree  of  ripeness  necessary — Starters — Rennet — Removal 
of  whey. 

Pages  233-250 

CHAPTER  XIV 
CHEDDAR  CHEESE  MAKING 

Setting  —  Cutting  —  Heating  —  Cheddaring  —  Grinding  —  Salting — 
Curing — Difficulties  likely  to  occur  in  cheddar  cheese  mak- 
ing— Qualities  of  cheese. 

Pages  251-268 

CHAPTER  XV 

OTHER  VARIETIES  OF  CHEESE 

Home-trade  or  stirred-curd  cheese — Sage  cheese — Young  Amer- 
ica—  Picnics  —  Pineapple  —  Truckle  — American  Neufchatel  — 
Philadelphia  cream  cheese — Limburger — Imitation  Swiss — 
Prepared  cheese — English  cheese — Stilton — Cheshire — Lanca- 
shire —  Derbyshire  —  Leicestershire  —  Wensleydale  —  Gorgon- 
zola — Emmenthaler  or  Swiss — Edam — Gouda — Roquefort — 
Brie — Camembert — D'Isigny — Pont  L'Eveque — Port  du  Salut 
— Parmesan. 

Pages  269-298 
CHAPTER  XVI 

ICE  CREAM 

Relation  to  dairy  practice — Classification — Quality  of  cream — 
Sugar — Flavors — Fillers — Freezing  and  packing — Transferring 
— Freezers — Recipes — Scoring. 

Pages  299-314 

CHAPTER  XVII 
OTHER  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DAIRY 

Skimmed  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey — Condensed  milk — Dried 
casein — Milk  sugar — Dutch  cheese — Whey  cheese — Cheese 
food — Koumiss — Kephir — Wheyn. 

Pages  315-325 


Contents  xv 

.  CHAPTER  XVIII 
BUTTER  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES 

Location  of  creameries — Arrangement  of  building — Construc- 
tion— Cheese  factories — Combined  butter  and  cheese  fac- 
tories— Farm  dairy  buildings. 

Pages  326-337 

CHAPTER  XIX 
STATISTICS  AND  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  DAIRY  INDUSTRY 

Increase  in  dairy  production — Development  of  the  factory  sys- 
tem— Dairy  legislation — Dairy  markets. 

Pages  338-347 

APPENDIX 

A.  Useful  rules  and  tests. 

Pages  349-362 

B.  Metric  system  of  weights  and  measures. 

Pages  363-364 

C.  Legal  standards  for  milk  in  the  various  states — The  oleomar- 

gerine  law — The  filled-cheese  law — The  New  York  state  dairy 
law. 

Pages  365-403 

D.  References   to   Agricultural    Experiment    Station   reports   and 

bulletins. 

Pages  404-415 

INDEX 

Pages  417-433 


Udders  of   good  and   poor  types. 
i'rom   Bulletin  No.  62,  Purdue   Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  by  permissioi 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


CHAPTER   I 

THE   SECRETION  OF  MILK 

THE  females  of  all  animals  that  suckle  their 
young  (class  Mammalia)  secrete  for  this  purpose  a 
special  fluid  which  is  known  as  milk.  It  is  an 
opaque  yellowish  white  fluid,  with  a  slight  alkaline 
reaction  and  a  faintly  sweetish  taste.  It  consists 
of  an  emulsion  of  fats  in  a  watery  solution  of 
alkaline  salts,  casein  and  sugar.  It  is  secreted  in 
two  special  glands  situated  without  the  body  cavity 
on  either  side  of  the  median  line,  and  known  as 
the  mammary  glands  or  mammae. 

Mammary  glands. — While,  strictly  speaking,  there 
are  but  two  glands,  each  gland  may  be  divided 
into  two  or  more  lobes,  each  having  a  separate  open- 
ing ;  thus,  while  there  are  ordinarily  but  two  simple 
glands  in  the  ewe,  mare  and  goat,  in  the  cow  there 
are  four  or  six,  in  the  cat  and  bitch  six  to  ten,  and 
in  the  sow  ten  to  fourteen.  In  animals  having 
multiple  glands,  the  mammae  occupy  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  and  abdomen.  In 
other  animals  the  glands  are  confined  either  to  the 
chest  or  abdomen.  In  many  animals  each  gland 
A  (1) 


2  Milk   and   Its   Products 

or  lobe  is  furnished  with  a  single  opening  connect- 
ing with  a  single  duct,  in  others  several  ducts 
open  independently  upon  the  surface  of  a  single 
nipple  or  teat.  The  mammary  gland  is  a  true 
organ  of  secretion  in  the  sense  that  its  product  (milk) 
contains  substances  not  before  existing  in  the  blood, 
that  are  formed  during  the  process  of  secretion  in  the 
gland  itself.  In  the  cow  the  mammary  glands  are  lo- 
cated on  the  posterior  portion  of  the  abdomen  be- 
tween the  hind  legs,  and  each  gland  is  made  up  of 
two  lobes  or  quarters,  each  having  a  single  outlet 
furnished  with  a  single  duct,  though  there  are  often 
one  and  sometimes  two  rudimentary  ducts  upon  the 
rear  quarters,  and  which  are  occasionally  developed  to 
such  an  extent  that  milk  may  be  drawn  from  them 
in  small  quantities.  The  whole  organ  is  spoken  of  as 
the  udder,  and  the  ducts  as  teats.  While  the  mam- 
mary gland  is  essentially  a  female  organ,  it  is  present 
in  a  rudimentary  condition  in  the  males  of  all  mam- 
mals, and  in  exceptional  cases  in  man  and  in  the  lower 
animals  the  organs  of  males  have  developed  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  secrete  mill^. 

The  cow's  udder. — The  udder  is  enclosed  in  a  fold 
of  skin,  which  is  here  thinner  and  softer  than  upon 
other  parts  of  the  body,  and  is  supported  by  a  band 
of  fibrous  tissue  that  springs  from  the  median  line  of 
the  body  and  extends  through  the  whole  substance  of 
the  gland.  It  varies  very  much  in  size  and  shape 
in  different  animals  and  in  the  same  animal  at  dif- 
ferent times.  Its  size  is  not  always  an  indication 
of  the  secreting  powers  of  an  animal,  since  the  num- 


Structure   of  the    Udder  3 

ber  of  true  secreting  follicles  does  not  necessarily  bear 
any  relation  to  the  apparent  size.  The  udder  in  a 
good  cow  should  be  large  and  well  developed ;  it 
should  occupy  the  whole  space  between  the  hind 
legs,  extending  well  up  between  the  thighs  and 
well  forward  upon  the  belly.  It  should  be  held 
firmly  against  the  wall  of  the  abdomen.  It  should 
be  level  or  nearly  so  on  the  bottom,  and  the  four 
quarters  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  equally 
developed  and  each  furnished  with  a  cylindrical  per- 
pendicular teat  of  moderate  length.  The  whole 
organ  should  diminish  rapidly  in  size  as  the  milk 
is  withdrawn.  The  hair  upon  the  udder  should  be 
fairly  abundant,  fine  and  soft,  and  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  a  brownish  dandruff. 

The  substance  of  the  udder  is  composed  of  the 
fibrous  band,  already  mentioned,  connective  tissue, 
fatty  tissue,  milk  ducts  or  canals,  true  secreting 
cells  (acini,  ultimate  follicles,  alveoli),  veins,  arte- 
ries, nerves  and  lymphatics,  the  whole  making  up  a 
reddish  gray  mass  of  spongy  texture. 

The  udder  varies  very  much,  in  different  indi- 
viduals, in  size  and  shape  as  well  as  in  internal 
structure  and  secreting  capacity.  In  some  animals 
the  amount  of  connective  and  fatty  tissue  is  much 
larger  than  in  others.  Such  udders  are  said  to  be 
"fleshy,"  and  while  usually  of  large  size  and  good 
shape,  are  deficient  in  true  secreting  capacity.  They 
are  firm  to  the  touch,  particularly  when  empty,  and 
do  not  markedly  diminish  in  size  when  the  milk 
is  withdrawn.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  such 


4  Milk   and   Its   Products 

udders  are  more  subject  to  inflammations  and  in- 
flammatory diseases  than  those  with  less  fatty  tissue. 
In  many  cows  the  fibrous  net -work  that  supports 
the  udder  is  held  firmly  up  to  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen.  If,  in  connection  with  this,  the  udder  has 
comparatively  little  connective  and  fatty  tissue,  the 
animal  will  have  an  udder  apparently  small,  but  with 
large  capacity  for  secretion.  In  old  cows,  particu- 
larly those  that  have  been  large  milkers,  the  fibrous 
bands  often  become  largely  relaxed,  so  that  the 
udder  falls  nearly  to  the  ground,  and  appears  to  be 
of  enormous  size. 

Internal  structure  of  the  udder  and  teats.  —  The 
teat  is  simply  a  canal  surrounded  by  muscular  walls 
and  closed  at  the  extremity  by  an  involuntary 
sphincter  muscle,  which  varies  much  in  rigidity  in 
different  animals  ;  often  it  is  so  lax  that  the  pressure 
of  a  small  amount  of  milk  in  the  canal  is  sufficient 
to  open  it  and  the  animal  leaks  her  milk.  In  other 
animals  it  requires  a  strong  effort  of  the  hand  to 
draw  the  milk.  When  desirable,  the  rigidity  may  be 
overcome  by  keeping  a 'smooth  wooden  plug  of  suf- 
ficient size  to  moderately  dilate  the  opening  in  the 
end  of  the  teat  till  the  muscle  relaxes  sufficiently 
to  permit  easy  drawing  of  the  milk,  or  the  muscle 
may  be  partially  divided  with  the  knife  in  the 
hands  of  a  skilful  operator.  At  the  top  of  the 
teat,  or  bottom  of  the  udder,  there  is  a  small 
cavity  known  as  the  milk  cistern,  serving  to  hold 
the  milk  after  its  secretion  until  it  is  drawn. 
It  is  of  varying  capacity,  up  to  half  a  pint, 


Arrangement   of  MM   Ducts  5 

and  is  partially  separated  from  the  canal  of  the 
teat  by  a  more  or  less  well  -  marked  constriction 
in  the  muscular  walls  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
teat.  From  the  milk  cisterns  a  system  of  canals 
or  so-called  milk  ducts  extends  to  all  portions  of 
the  udder.  These  ducts  are  larger  near  their  open- 
ing into  the  milk  cistern,  and  diminish  in  size 
as  they  rise  through  the  udder.  They  branch  and 
anastomose  freely  in  all  directions,  and  finally  end 
in  a  group  of  small  sac -like  bodies,  the  ultimate 
follicles.  The  system  of  milk  ducts  arising  from 
each  teat  is  practically  distinct,  though  there  is 
more  or  less  communication  between  the  smaller 
ducts  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  two  quarters 
on  the  same  side  of  the  animal.  This  renders 
it  possible  to  draw  a  part  of  the  milk  secreted 
in  the  hind  quarter  from  the  forward  teat  on 
the  same  side,  and  vice  versa.  There  is  no  com- 
munication between  the  ducts  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  animal.  At  the  junctions  of  the  larger 
ducts  there  are  greater  or  smaller  enlargements, 
forming  small  cavities  or  milk  reservoirs,  which 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  reservoirs  at 
the  top  of  the  teat.  The  branching  points  of 
all  the  ducts,  large  and  small,  are  guarded  by 
sphincter  muscles.  These  muscles  are  connected 
with  the  abdominal  muscles  of  the  animal,  and  she 
is  able  to  more  or  less  completely  close  them  at 
will,  and  so  "hold  up"  her  milk.  It  requires  a 
strong  effort  on  the  part  of  the  animal  to  com- 
pletely close  the  larger  ducts  in  the  lower  part  of 


6  Milk   and  Its   Products 

the  udder ;  a  comparatively  slight  effort  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  close  the  smaller  vessels.  Animals  vary 
greatly  both  in  the  control  they  possess  over  these 
muscles  and  in  their  disposition  to  use  it.  Very  few 
can  completely  close  the  larger  ducts,  and  very  many 
rareljr  exercise  whatever  power  they  do  possess.  •Sud- 
den fright,  the  presence  of  strange  persons  or  animals 
in  the  stable,  any  irregularity  in  the  time  or  manner 
of  feeding  or  milking,  and  slight  feverish  conditions, 
particularly  sexual  heat,  are  the  most  common  pro- 
vocatives to  holding  up  milk.  There  are  very  many 
cows  that  contract  the  habit  of  holding  up  the  milk 
upon  the  slightest  provocation,  and  if  the  habit  is 
once  formed  it  is  almost  impossible  to  cure  it,  and 
the  result  is  that  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  as 
a  milk  producer  is  largely  destroyed,  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  milk  in  the  udder  interferes  greatly 
with  the  activity  of  secretion,  and  in  a  short  time 
permanently  lessens  it. 

The  ultimate  follicles. — The  milk  ducts,  after 
branching  and  anastomosing  in  all  directions,  finally 
end  in  a  group  of  small  sac -like  bodies  known  as 
acini,  or  ultimate  follicles.  It  is  in  these  small 
bodies  that  the  secretion  of  the  milk  takes  place. 
They  are  about  l-30th  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
are  found  in  groups  of  three  to  five,  with  a  com- 
mon outlet  at  the  end  of  each  branching  duct. 
In  form  and  appearance  they  present  marked 
changes  according  to  the  condition  of  the  animal. 
During  active  lactation  they  are  found  in  their 
highest  development.  When  lactation  ceases,  the 


Secretion   of  Milk  7 

smaller  ducts  become  much  retracted,  and  the 
follicles  shrink  in  size  and  finally  become  rudimen- 
tary, or  even  entirely  disappear,  until  under  the 
stimulus  of  a  succeeding  pregnancy,  the  whole 
gland  renews  its  activity,  and  the  ducts  and  fol- 
licles regain  their  former  size  and  appearance. 
New  ducts  and  follicles  may  also  be  formed  up  to 
about  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and  the  power  of 
the  animal  to  secrete  milk  be  thereby  increased. 
Surrounding  the  follicles,  and  intimately  attached 
to  them,  are  capillary  blood  vessels,  both  Veins  and 
arteries,  and  through  the  cells  of  the  membranes 
making  up  the  walls  of  all  these  vessels  the  fluids 
of  the  blood  freely  pass  into  the  cavity  of  the 
follicles  by  means  of  osmosis,  or  transudation. 
The  cavity  of  the  follicle  is  lined  with  epithelial 
cells,  that  during  lactation  are  filled  with  proto- 
plasm, and  are  capable  of  rapid  multiplication, 
growth,  and  degeneration,  at  the  same  time  that 
the  cell  contents  are  undergoing  rapid  and  exten- 
sive changes. 

The  secretion  of  milk. — The  milk  is  formed  from 
the  blood,  partly  by  the  transudation  of  the  blood 
serum  directly  into  the  cavity  of  the  milk  follicle, 
and  partly  by  a  transformation  of  the  contents  of 
the  epithelial  cells  lining  the  cavity  of  the  follicle, 
which  at  this  time  are  especially  active.  The 
water  passes  directly  from  the  capillaries  into  the 
milk  follicles  and  ducts,  carrying  with  it  the  min- 
eral constituents  in  solution  and  a  part  of  the  al- 
bumin of  the  blood  serum;  but  by  far  the  larger 


8 


Milk  and  Its  Products 


part  of  the  albumin  is  in  some  way  changed  dur- 
ing its  passage  from  the  capillaries,  and  appears  in 
the  cavity  of  the  follicle  as  the  casein  of  the  milk. 


Fig.  1.    Section  through  alveoli  of  the  mammary  gland  of  the  dog  in  first  and 
second  stages  of  secretion.    From  Meade  Smith,  after  Heidenhain. 


When  milk  is  being  secreted,  the  lining  cells  of 
the  follicle  are  in  a  state  of  constant  activity. 
New  cells  are  constantly  being  formed  by  budding 
or  fission  (the  cell  elongates,  a  partition  forms 
across  it,  and  the  two  halves  so  divided  enlarge  to 
the  size  of  the  mother  cell,  and  there  are  two  cells 
where  but  one  existed  before),  and  older  cells  are 
as  constantly  breaking  down.  While  this  is  going 
on,  the  cell  contents,  consisting  mainly  of  protoplasm, 
become  changed  into  a  globule  of  fat,  and  the 
globules  so  formed  are  either  extruded  through  the 
cell  wall  into  the  cavity  of  the  follicle,  or  set  free 
by  the  breaking  down  and  reabsorption  of  the  cell 
wall.  In  all  probability  both  processes  take  place. 
Small  portions  of  the  fat  may  also  be  carried  over 
directly  from  the  blood  and  appear  in  the  milk 
without  change.  The  milk  sugar  is  probably  formed 


Incentives   to   Secretion  9 

through  a  chemical  change  in  the  contents  of  these 
lining  cells,  since  but  minute  quantities  of  sugar 
are  found  in  the  blood. 

Incentives  to  secretion. — Maternity  is  the  prime 
incentive  to  the  secretion  of  milk.  While  there  is 
a  distinct  increase  in  the  development  of  the  mammae 
upon  attaining  puberty,  it  is  not  until  pregnancy  is 
well  advanced  that  the  organ  attains  anywhere  near 
its  full  development,  or  that  there  is  any  activity 
in  the  true  secreting  cells.  In  the  virgin  animal, 
and  up  to  within  a  short  time  of  parturition,  the 
cavities  and  ducts  of  the  udder  contain  a  watery 
saline  fluid,  but  true  milk  does  not  appear  until  a 
short  time  before,  and  in  some  cases  not  until  after, 
parturition.  The  immediate  stimulus  to  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  is  the  turning  of  the  blood  that  went 
to  nourish  the  foetus  from  the  arteries  of  the  uterus 
to  the  arteries  of  the  udder.  The  pressure  of  blood 
in  the  vessels  of  the  udder  stimulates  the  secreting 
cells  to  great  activity,  and  the  cells,  hitherto  dor- 
mant, begin  to  multiply  rapidly.  When  this  activity 
is  first  set  up,  the  various  processes  of  secretion  arc 
more  or  less  incomplete,  so  that  the  milk  first  se 
creted  is  very  different  in  character  from  that  se- 
creted afterwards,  and  is  known  as  colostrum.  The 
colostrum  contains  in  the  first  place  considerably 
less  water  than  normal  milk;  in  the  second  place, 
the  transformation  of  albumin  into  casein  is  only 
partial,  so  that  colostrum  contains  large  amounts  of 
albumin;  and  finally,  when  secretion  of  milk  begins, 
the  cells  of  the  follicle  multiply  more  rapidly  than 


10  Milk   and   Its   Products 

they  can  be  reabsorbed,  and  portions  of  partially 
broken  down  cells  break  away  from  the  walls  of 
the  follicle  and  appear  in  the  colostrum .  Gradually 
the  colostrum  takes  on  the  character  of  normal 
milk,  and  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  days  the 
change  is  complete.  Other  characteristics  of  colos- 
trum are  discussed  in  detail  in  the  next  chapter. 

While  maternity  is  the  prime  cause  of  secretion, 
it  is  not  the  only  means  of  stimulation  to  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  udder,  nor  is  it  a  necessary  prerequisite 
to  the  secretion  of  milk.  The  regular  removal 
of  the  saline  fluid  in  the  gland  of  the  virgin 
animal,  or  even  the  stimulation  of  the  organ  by  the 
friction  of  the  hand  or  the  suckling  of  a  calf,  may 
be  sufficient  to  cause  the  secretion  of  milk  of  nor- 
mal character  in  considerable  quantities.  In  the 
same  way  and  under  the  same  exciting  causes,  other 
glands  of  the  body,  notably  the  lymphatics  in  the 
arm  pits  and  the  rudimentary  mammas  of  males, 
have  been  known  to  secrete  a  fluid  resembling  milk 
in  all  essential  characteristics. 

Amount  and  duration  of  flow. — With  wild  ani- 
mals in  a  state  of  nature,  the  milk  is  secreted  only 
in  amount  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  young 
animal,  and  only  until  the  young  is  sufficiently  de- 
veloped to  secure  its  food  independently  of  the 
mother.  Under  the  influence  of  domestication  the 
cow  has  been  brought  to  increase  her  flow  of  milk 
many  fold,  and  the  time  during  which  it  is  se- 
creted has  been  lengthened  until  it  is  almost,  and 
indeed  is,  in  some  cases  quite  continuous.  A  dis- 


Dependence   upon    Circulation   of  Blood  11 

cussion  of  the  agencies  by  means  of  which  this 
most  important  result  has  been  brought  about 
would  open  up  the  whole  question  of  the  selection, 
breeding  and  training  of  cows,  as  well  as  every- 
thing pertaining  to  the  science  of  foods  and  feed- 
ing, which  is  not  here  possible.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  physiological  conditions  affecting  the 
secretion  of  milk  that  may  be  mentioned. 

Milk  is  secreted  from  the  blood.  The  amount 
of  milk  secreted  will,  therefore,  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  blood  passing  through  the  udder,  and 
this,  in  turn,  will  depend  upon  the  number  and 
size  of  the  blood  vessels,  not  only  in  the  udder  it- 
self, but  leading  to  it  and  away  from  it,  the  vigor 
of  the  circulation,  the  supply  of  food  to  the  ani- 
mal, and  her  capacity  to  eat,  digest .  and  assimilate 
it  and  turn  it  into  blood.  From  or  shortly  after 
parturition,  there  is  a  constant  tendency  of  the 
blood  vessels  in  the  udder  to  shrink  in  size,  and 
consequently  a  constantly  diminishing  flow  of  milk. 
When  the  period  of  lactation  advances  at  the  same 
time  that  the  pastures  are  growing  more  scanty 
and  less  succulent,  this  diminution  is  fairly  regular 
and  constant,  especially  after  from  three  to  five 
months  of  the  period  of  lactation  have  passed.  This 
tendency  to  shrinkage  in  the  size  of  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  udder  may  be  held  in  check  in  great 
measure  by  an  abundant  supply  of  nutritious  food, 
particularly  if  it  is  of  a  succulent  character,  and 
it  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  cows  secreting 
milk  in  regular  amount,  or  "holding  out,"  for  eight 


12  Milk  and  Its  Products 

or  ten  months.  But  in  this  respect  the  individ- 
uality of  the  animal  plays  an  important  part,  so 
that  wide  variations  are  seen  in  different  individ- 
uals under  the  same  conditions  of  food  and  care. 
After  a  shrinkage  in  the  flow  has  once  taken  place, 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  again  increase  it  by 
increased  food  until  after  another  calving. 

Effect  of  succeeding  pregnancy  .—The  effect  of  the 
animal  again  becoming  pregnant  is  to  decrease  the 
flow  of  milk.  The  cause  of  this  decrease  seems, 
in  many  cases,  to  be  two-fold:.  First,  a  sympa- 
thetic effect,  following  immediately  upon  conception, 
and  secondly,  a  shrinkage  due  to  a  turning  away  of 
a  part  of  the  blood  from  the  udder  to  nourish  the 
growing  foetus.  This  shrinkage  does  not  become 
marked  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  month  of  preg- 
nancy. In  this  respect,  as  in  their  power  to  "hold 
out,"  individual  animals  show  the  widest  variation. 
With  very  many  the  effect  of  becoming  again  preg- 
nant is  so  slight  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable  ;  with 
others  it  is  so  great  as  to  materially  interfere  with 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal. 

Incomplete  removal  of  milk. — One  of  the  most 
important  means  of  checking  the  secretion  of  milk 
lies  in  the  incomplete  removal  of  milk  already  se- 
creted. We  have  already  seen  that  the  removal 
of  the  saline  fluid  from  the  ducts  of  the  inactive 
gland  is  an  efficient  stimulus  to  secretion.  So,  too, 
the  presence  of  milk  in  the  ducts  acts  as  a  check 
to  further  secretion.  Further  than  that,  it  not 
only  checks  secretion  but  is  an  actual  irritant,  suffi- 


Regularity   of  Milking  13 

r 

cient  in  many  instances  to  give  rise  to  inflammations 
of  a  serious  character.  Clean  milking  is  one  of 
the  most  important  aids  in  keeping  up  and  pro- 
longing the  flow  of  milk. 

Regularity  and  frequency  of  milking. — While  the 
process  of  milk  secretion  is  a  continuous  one,  it  is 
not  entirely  uniform.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  secretion  is  considerably  more  rapid  while* 
the  operation  of  milking  is  going  on,  and  that  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  whole  amount  is  then  secreted. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  distension  of  the  milk  ducts 
and  reservoirs  by  milk  already  secreted  acts  as  more 
or  less  of  a  check  upon  the  activity  of  the  follicles, 
and  so  lessens  the  rapidity  of  secretion.  While  for 
these  reasons  it  would  be  inferred  that  frequent 
milking  would  lead  to  increased  secretion,  the  limits 
of  such  increased  secretion  are*  moderate,  and  beyond 
a  certain  point  no  increased  flow  of  milk  is  secured 
by  increasing  the  frequency  of  the  milking  'periods. 
1^1  all  cases  where  the  udder  becomes  unduly  dis- 
tended with  milk  between  periods,  an  increased  flow 
will  be  secured  by  milking  oftener.  The  common 
practice  is  to  milk  twice  in  the  twenty -four  hours, 
and  the  nearer  the  time  can  be  divided  into  equal  pe- 
riods the  more  uniform  will  be  the  secretion.  Where 
more  frequent  milking  is  practiced  the  same  principle 
will  hold.  Not  only  is  regularity  in  the  period  from 
morning  to  night  of  importance,  but  regularity  in 
the  time  of  milking  from  day  to  day  is  equally  so. 
A  difference  of  an  hour  in  the  time  of  milking  will 
frequently  make  a  difference  of  10  per  cent  in  the 


14  Milk   and   Its   Products 

amount  secreted,  and  where  these  irregularities  are 
frequent,  will  soon  result  in  a  considerably  diminished 
flow.  The  amount  of  milk  given  is  also  considerably 
affected  by  the  way  in  which  the  milk  is  drawn. 
In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  rapid  milking  is  con- 
ducive to  a  large  flow.  In  any  event,  the  milk 
should  be  drawn  so  that  no  discomfort  is  caused 
the  animal,  and  in  this  respect  there  is  great  dif- 
ference in  milkers.  A  rapid,  uniform  stroke,  with 
a  firm  touch  on  the  teat,  and  a  stroking  motion  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  udder,  gives  the  best  results. 
Babcock  has  found  that  certain  milkers  uniformly  get 
not  only  more  but  richer  milk  from  the  same  cow. 
.  Control  of  the  animal  over  secretion. — The  secre- 
tion of  milk  is  involuntary.  The  animal  can  no 
more  control  it  than  it  can  control  the  respiration 
or  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Yet  there  are 
numerous  conditions  of  the  animal  that  have  a 
more  or  less  direct  effect  upon  the  secretion  of  milk. 
These  conditions  have  not  only  to  do  with  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  animal — as  the  supply  of  food, 
the  circulation  of  the  Blood,  extremes  of  temperature, 
etc. — but  extend  in  large  measure  to  the  nervous 
organization  and  condition  of  the  animal.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  animal  may  by  an  exercise  of 
will  more  or  less  completely  control  the  withdrawal 
of  milk  already  secreted ;  so,  too,  there  are  nervous 
conditions  that  have  a  great  effect  upon  the  actual 
secretion.  Sudden  fright,  an  unfamiliar  milker  or 
attendant,  unusual  excitement,  sexual  excitement,  or 
the  presence  of  an  animal  in  heat  in  the  herd,  an 


Physical    Condition   of  Animal  15 

unusual  amount  of  exercise,  or  any  one  of  many 
other  causes,  may  be  sufficient  to  decrease  the  secre- 
tion of  milk  one -half  in  any  one  day.  The  effect 
of  such  disturbances  is  usually  quickly  overcome,  but 
their  frequent  recurrence  leads  to  a  permanent  diminu- 
tion of  the  secretion.  The  nervous  organization 
of  the  animal  is  a  most  important  factor  in  deter- 
mining the  effect  of  these  various  disturbing  influ- 
ences. Many  of  the  animals  in  which  the  powers  of 
digestion,  nutrition  and  secretion  are  most  highly  de- 
veloped are  possessed  also  of  a  highly  developed  and 
sensitive  nervous  system,  and  hence  are  easily  affected 
by  any  disturbing  condition.  With  all  such  animals 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  every  condition 
surrounding  the  animal  should  be  as  regular  and 
uniform  as  possible.  Other  animals  of  equal  capacity 
show  a  remarkably  quiet  and  phlegmatic  nervous 
temperament,  and  are  consequently  slightly  or  not  at 
all  affected  by  such  disturbing  influences.  Such  an- 
imals are  of  great  value  to  the  milk  producer,  for 
with  the  utmost  care  and  regularity  there  are  always 
disturbing  influences  beyond  the  control  of  the 
dairyman. 


CHAPTER  II 

COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

THE  constituents  of  milk  are  numerous  and  of 
diverse  character,  but  may  be  easily  classified  into  a 
few  well  marked  groups  as  follows:  (a)  water,  (b) 
fats,  (c)  substances  containing  nitrogen  (albumi- 
noids), (d)  sugar,  (e)  ash.  Excepting  the  water,  they 
are  collectively  known  as  milk  solids.  The  solids 
exist  partly  in  solution,  partly  in  semi -solution,  and 
partly  in  suspension  in  the  water.  Milk  from  the 
various  classes  of  animals  has  the  same  general 
constitution  and  properties,  and  varies  only  in  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  various  proximate  con- 
stituents. Cow's  milk  is  typical  of  all  milks,  and  as 
it  is  the  only  milk  used  in  processes  of  manufac- 
ture in  the  United  Steites,  all  of  our  discussion.', 
have  reference  to  it  alone.  In  various  other  coun- 
tries milk  from  the  goat,  ass,  mare  and  ewe  is  con- 
siderably used,  not  only  as  food  but  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  various  products.  Indeed  the  peculiar- 
ities of  some  of  these  are  supposed  to  be  largely  due 
to  their  having  been  made  from  the  milk  of  ani- 
mals other  than  the  cow.  Koumiss,  made  from 
mare's  milk  in  Arabia,  and  Roquefort  cheese,  made 
largely  from  ewe's  milk,  are  noteworthy  examples. 

(16) 


Percentage    Composition 


17 


All  of  the  milk  constituents  are  more  or  less  va- 
riable in  quantity,  and  man}-  of  them  vary  widely; 
hence  it  is  not  possible  to  make  a  statement  of  the 
average  percentage  composition  of  milk  that  will  give 
more  than  a  general  idea  of  its  composition.  The 
following  are  taken  from  recent  authorities  in  the 
various  countries: 


Water  .  . 
Fat  .  .  . 

American. 
(Babcock.) 
.  .    87.17 
3  69 

English. 
(Oliver.) 
87.60 
3  25 

German. 
(Fleischmann.) 
87.75 
3  40 

French. 
(Cornevin.) 
87.75 
o  30 

Casein  .  . 
Albumin  . 
Sugar  .  .  . 
Ash  .... 

.   .      3.02 
.   .        .53 
.   .      4.88 
.    .         71 

3.40 
.45 
4.55 

75 

2.80 
.70 
4.60 
75 

^3.00 

4.80 
75 

100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


The  following,  from  Koenig,  shows  the  range  of 
variation  of  the  several  constituents  in  nearly  800 
analyses  collected  from  all  parts  of  the  world: 

Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Water  - 
Pat ... 
Casein  . 
Albumin 
Sugar  . 
Ash  .  . 


6.47 
4.23 
1.44 
6.03 
1.21 


1.67 
1.79 


2.11 
.35 


While  the  range  of  variation  shown  above  is 
considerable,  some  of  the  constituents,  notably  the 
fat,  may  show  even  greater  ranges  in  milk  secreted 
by  normal,  healthy  cows.  It  is  probable  that  the 
minimum  of  Kcenig  is  seldom  exceeded,  but  as  high 
as  10  per  cent  of  fat  has  been  found  in  the  milk 
of  single  cows  giving  a  very  small  quantity.  Bab- 
cock  states  that  no  analysis  showing  more  than  9 


18  Milk   and   Its   Products 

per  cent  of  fat  is  recorded  from  any  cow  giving  as 
much  as  15  pounds  of  milk  per  day.  Any  analysis 
above  7  per  cent  is  extremely  rare,  and  should  be 
regarded  with  suspicion  unless  well  authenticated. 
The  mixed  milk  of  herds  seldom  falls  below  3  per 
cent  of  fat  and  rarely  rises  above  5.5  per  cent. 

Colostrum. — The  first  milk  secreted  by  the  animal 
after  parturition  is  quite  distinct  in  composition  and 
physical  properties  from  that  produced  after  the 
secretion  has  become  well  established.  Such  milk 
is  called  colostrum,  and  is  ordinarily  considered 
unfit  for  consumption  or  manufacture.  Colostrum 
differs  from  normal  milk  chiefly  in  its  less  proportion 
of  water  and  sugar,  in  the  much  greater  proportion 
of  albumin  and  ash,  in  the  extremely  variable  amount 
of  fat,  and  in  the  presence  of  small  organized  bodies 
known  as  colostrum  corpuscles,  which  are  probably 
debris  of  the  cell  structure  of  the  gland.  The  follow- 
ing analyses  from  Richmond  after  Vaudin  show  the 
extremely  variable  composition  of  colostrum: 

No.  1.  No.  2. 

Water £•-'•>' 72-39  75-51 

Pat    .   .    .   . " 1.30  6.32 

Sugar 1.52  2.17 

Proteids  (casein,  albumin,  etc.) 23.70  14.91 

Ash  1.09  1.09 


100.00  100.00 

The  percentage  of  albumin  in  colostrum  is  so 
great  that  it  will  cause  the  whole  mass  of  milk  to 
thicken  upon  boiling,  and  this  is  ordinarily  consid- 
ered a  sufficient  test  for  determining  the  suitability 
of  the  milk  for  consumption  or  manufacture.  With- 


Specific    Gravity   of  Milk  19 

in  four  or  five  days  after  calving,  the  milk  loses  its 
colostrum  character  and  takes  on  its  normal  condi- 
tion. This  change  is  a  gradual  and  progressive  one, 
and  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the  physical 
condition  of  the  animal.  When  the  cow  is  feverish, 
or  when  there  is  local  inflammation  in  the  udder, 
the  colostrum  character  of  the  milk  is  retained 
for  a  longer  period  than  otherwise.  The  amount 
of  coloring  matter  present  is  also  considerably 
greater  in  colostrum  than  in  normal  milk,  and  the 
percentage  of  fat  varies  very  widely.  Usually  the 
percentage  of  fat  is  less  in  the  colostrum  than  in 
the  normal  milk  from  the  same  cow,  although  oc- 
casions are  not  infrequent  where  more  fat  is  found 
in  the  milk  immediately  after  calving  than  at  any 
other  time  in  the  whole  period  of  lactation. 

Specific  gravity  of  milk. —  Some  of  the  solids  of 
milk  are  heavier  than  water  and  some  of  them  lighter, 
milk  as  a  whole  having  a  specific  gravity  somewhat 
greater  than  water.  The  variation  in  the  specific 
gravity  is  considerable,  the  range  usually  given  being 
from  1.029  to  1.035  at  60°  F.,  the  average  being 
about  1.032.  In  general,  the  effect  of  an  increase 
in  the  solids  of  the  milk  is  to  increase  its  specific 
gravity,  though  .in  milk  extremely  rich  in  fats  (6 
per  cent  or  above)  the  specific  gravity  is  lessened. 
Formerly,  more  than  at  present,  it  was  the  custom 
to  estimate  the  quality  of  the  milk  by  determining 
its  specific  gravity,  but  as  soon  as  it  became  known 
that  the  specific  gravity  depended  not  so  much  upon 
the  amount  as  upon  the  character  of  the  solids,  a 


20  Milk   and  Its   Products 

determination  of  the  specific  gravity  became  of  little 
value.  Unscrupulous  dairymen  soon  learned  that 
water  could  be  added  to  milk  and  fat  or  cream 
taken  from  it  in  such  proportions  that  the  specific 
gravity  would  remain  the  same  as  that  of  normal 
milk. 

The  fats.— The  fat  of  milk,  or  butter  fat,  as  it 
is  often  called,  is  a  mixture  of  a  considerable  number 
of  separate  and  distinct  fats,  no  less  than  six  or 
eight  being  normal  to  milk,  and  a  considerable  fur- 
ther number  may  be  present  under  various  conditions. 
The  fats  in  milk  are  of  two  kinds,  volatile  and  non- 
volatile. To  the  former  class  belong  the  various 
normal  essential  oils  that  give  to  milk  and  butter 
their  characteristic  odors  and  flavors,  and  in  addition 
to  these  normal  fats  there  may  be  a  large  number 
of  volatile  oils  that  are  present  in  the  food  of  the 
cow,  and  that  impart  to  the  milk  the  characteristic 
flavors  of  such  foods. 

The  volatile  fats.—  The  volatile  fats  make  up  only 
a  small  part  of  the  total  milk  fat;  in  geneial,  prob- 
ably about  15  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  chief 
normal  volatile  fats  are  butyrin,  caprin,  caproin, 
caprilin  and  laurin.  Of  these,  butyrin  is  in  much 
the  largest  proportion  and  of  much  the  greatest  im- 
portance. It  is  the  chief  volatile  fat  of  milk  and 
butter,  and  GO  it  are  due  in  large  part  the  character- 
istic flavors  and  aromas  of  milk  and  butter.  Butyrin 
readily  decomposes,  forming  butyric  acid,  which  is  the 
chief  element  in  the  rancid  or  "  frowy "  taste  that 
butter  acquires  upon  long  standing. 


Effect   of  Strong -flavored   Foods  21 

The  volatile  fats  that  are  derived  directly  from 
the  food  may  give  either  desirable  or  undesirable 
flavors  to  the  milk.  Thus  we  esteem  the  character- 
istic flavors  due  to  the  grasses,  clover  and  like  fodder ; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  stronger  flavors  of  garlic, 
onions,  turnips,  cabbage,  etc.,  give  to  the  milk  an 
undesirable  character. 

The  presence  of  these  undesirable  flavors  in  milk 
is  often  a  source  of  a  good  deal  of  annoyance,  but 
with  proper  precautions  the  bad  results  coming  from 
them  may  be  greatly  lessened,  and  in  many  cases 
entirely  obviated.  Since  all  of  these  flavoring  oils  are 
volatile,  they  easily  pass  through  all  the  tissues  of 
the  animal,  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time  pass 
off  through  the  various  excretory  channels.  We  shall 
find  them  present  in  the  greatest  amount  not  only 
in  the  milk,  but  in  all  the  tissues  of  the  animal, 
during  the  time  that  the  fodder  containing  them  is 
undergoing  digestion,  and  by  the  time  the  digestion 
is  completed  the  volatile  products  will  have  almost 
entirely  passed  away.  If,  therefore,  sufficient  care 
is  taken  to  so  time  the  feeding  and  milking  that  the 
milk  shall  be  drawn  not  less  than  ten  or  twelve 
hours  after  the  undesirable  fodder  has  been  eaten, 
there  will  be  slight  danger  of  contamination  of  the 
milk  by  it.  Whereas,  if  milking  occurs  within  three 
or  four  hours  after  feeding,  the  milk  will  be 
strongly  impregnated  with  the  undesirable  flavor. 
Taking  advantage  of  this,  and  feeding  cows  immedi- 
ately before  or  immediately  after  milking,  dairymen 
are  often  enabled  to  feed  large  quantities  of  turnips, 


22  Milk    and   Its   Products 

and  even  onions,  without  danger  of  contamination  of 
the  milk.  The  presence  of  wild  garlic  and  wild 
onions  in  pastures  is  a  source  of  bad  flavor  in  the 
milk  in  a  considerable  portion  of  the  country.  Where 
this  is  the  case  it  is,  of  course,  more  difficult  to 
overcome  the  bad  flavor;  but  by  allowing  the  cows 
to  pasture  for  a  comparatively  short  time  only  im- 
mediately after  milking,  and  keeping  them  up  and 
giving  them  some  dry  food  for  three  or  four  hours 
before  milking,  there  will  be  a  great  deal  less  an- 
noyance from  this  source. 

The  non- volatile  fats. — The  non- volatile  fats  make 
up  about  85  per  cent  of  the  whole  amount  of  fat, 
and  consist  of  a  more  or  less  uncertain  and  variable 
mixture  of  several  fats,  of  which  olein  and  palmitin 
make  up  the  chief  part.  They  are  glycerides  of  the 
corresponding  fatty  acids — oleic,  palmitic,  stearic,  rayr- 
istic,  etc.,  and  differ  from  one  another  chiefly  in 
their  hardness  or  melting  point.  Olein  is  liquid  at 
ordinary  temperatures ;  palmitin  and  the  others  are 
solid.  Olein  melts  at  about  41°  F.,  the  hard  fats  at 
various  temperatures  from  130°  to  150°  F.  The 
mixture  of  the  whole,-  as  we  find  them  in  ordinary 
butter,  melts  at  from  92°  to  96°  F.  The  hardness 
or  softness  of  different  butters,  depending  largely 
upon  varying  proportions  of  olein.  Considerable  doubt 
exists  as  to  the  relative  proportions  of  the  various 
fats  and  fatty  acids.  Browne*  gives  the  following 
percentages  of  volatile  and  non -volatile  fatty  acids: 


*Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soe.  21,  823. 


The   Non- volatile   Fats  23 


Oleic - 33.95 

Palmitic 40.51 

Myristic 10.44 

Stearie        1.91 

Dioxystearic 1.04 

Butyric 6.23 

Laurie 2.73 

Caproie .' 2.32 

Caprylic 53 

Capric 34 


100.00 


It  is  asserted  that  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
fat  is  most  intimately  associated  with  the  palmitin. 
The  fat  exists  in  the  milk  in  the  form  of  ^-an  emul- 
sion of  extremely  small  globules,  varying  in  size 
from  TgVo  to  -25-00-0  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  These 
globules  are  not  surrounded  by  pellicles,  or  so- 
called  skins,  as  was  formerly  thought,  but  main- 
tain their  form  by  reason  of  the  surface  tension  of 
the  liquid  fat,  and  also  to  some  extent  because  of 
a  layer  of  more  or  less  condensed  casein  that  im- 
mediately surrounds  them.  The  permanency  of  the 
emulsion  is  further  increased  by  the  viscous  nature 
of  the  milk  serum,  due  to  the  presence  of  sugar 
and  other  solids  in  solution. 

The  albuminoids. — The  casein  is  the  chief  albu- 
minoid of  milk,  although  there  is  always  present  a 
small  amount  of  albumin,  and,  according  to  some 
authorities,  of  fibrin.  Casein  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance in  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  and  it  is  the 
chief  constituent  that  goes  to  form  tissue  when  milk 
is  used  as  a  food. 

There   is   a    good   deal   of    doubt   as   to   the   form 


24  Milk   and   Its   Products 

in  which  the  casein  exists.  Formerly  it  was  sup- 
posed that  the  casein  is  in  solution.  This  idea 
was  brought  about  by  the  fact  that  it  is  impossible 
to  filter  the  casein  from  the  milk,  even  though  it 
is  passed  through  several  thicknesses  of  fine  paper. 
Later,  though,  it  was  found  that  when  milk  is 
passed  through  a  fine  porcelain  filter  a  certain  part 
is  removed,  and  it  was  then  supposed  that  there 
were  two  forms  of  casein,  one  of  which  was  in 
solution  and  the  other  in  suspension  in  very  fine 
particles  of  a  colloidal  or  gummy  character.  Still 
later  investigations  have  shown  that  in  all  proba- 
bility a  large  part  of  the  casein  is  in  this  extremely 
fine  colloidal  state.  When  milk  is  subjected  to 
the  action  of  weak  organic  or  mineral  acids,  to 
rennet  or  to  certain  vegetable  substances,  the  casein 
is  precipitated  in  a  flocculent  mass.  Casein  is  not 
acted  upon  by  heat.  The  albumin  of  the  milk  is 
in  all  respects  similar  to  blood  albumin.  It  is 
rendered  insoluble  by  a  heat  of  about  180°  F.,  but 
it  is  not  acted  upon  by  weak  acids  or  rennet,  and 
in  this  way  it  is  chiefly  distinguished  from  the 
casein.  The  fibrin  of  milk,  if  present,  is  in  ex- 
tremely minute  quantities.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  same  as  blood  fibrin,  and  coagulates  upon  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  but  is  never  present  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  form  a  clot,  as  in  the  case  of  blood. 
Its  coagulation  is  hindered  by  a  reduction  of  tem- 
perature, and  it  has  been  supposed  that  when  it  does 
coagulate  it  forms  a  sort  of  network  of  threads 
through  the  mass  of  milk. 


Milk   Sugar  and   Ash  25 

The  sugar. —  Milk  sugar,  otherwise  called  lactose, 
exists  in  solution  in  the  milk  serum.  It  has  the 
same  chemical  composition  as  cane  sugar :  that  is, 
Ci2H22On  +  H20.  It  crystallizes  with  considerable 
difficulty,  and  has  very  much  less  sweetening  power 
than  ordinary  sugar.  Under  the  influence  of  vari- 
ous ferments  it  readily  undergoes  decomposition, 
each  molecule  of  sugar  breaking  up  into  four  mol- 
ecules of  lactic  acid.  This  change  begins  in  the 
milk  almost  immediately  after  it  is  drawn,  and  con- 
tinues until  from  .8  to  1  per  cent  of  lactic  acid 
is  formed.  The  presence  of  lactic  acid  in  this 
amount  acts  as  a  check  upon  the  growth  of  the 
ferments,  and  prevents  the  further  formation  of 
lactic  acid,  unless  the  acid  is  neutralized  with  an 
alkali,  when  the  fermentation  proceeds  as  before. 
Milk  sugar  does  not  readily  undergo  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation, but  by  the  action  of  yeast  and  some 
other  ferments  the  lactose  is  "inverted,"  or  changed 
to  dextrose  and  a  peculiar  substance  known  as  ga- 
lactose,  and  these  readily  change  to  alcohol  under 
the  influence  of  the  proper  ferments. 

The  ash. — The  ash  is  the  smallest  and  least 
variable  constituent  of  the  milk.  It  is  composed 
chiefly  of  the  phosphates  of  lime  and  potash,  the 
chlorides  of  potash  and  soda,  with  small  amounts 
of  phosphate  of  iron  and  magnesia.  Most  of  the 
salts  are  in  solution.  It  seems  probable  that  at 
least  a  part  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  is  ordinarily 
in  insoluble  form,  suspended  in  the  milk  in  very 
fine  particles  in  connection  with  the  casein.  The 


26  Milk   and    Its    Products 

chloride  of  potash  is  largely  in  excess  of  the 
chloride  of  soda.  This  is  exactly  opposite  to  the 
proportions  of  these  two  salts  in  the  blood. 

Other  constituents. —  Besides  the  constituents  enu- 
merated above,  several  other  compounds  are  more  or 
less  normally  present  in  milk  in  minute  quan- 
tities. 

A  small  amount  of  citric  acid  is  said  to  be  a 
normal  constituent  of  milk. 

A  peculiar  substance  called  lactochrome  is  also 
a  normal  constituent  of  milk,  and  gives  to  it  its 
characteristic  color.  This  has  been  already  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  palmitin.  The  amount 
of  lactochrome  present  varies  under  many  condi- 
tions, notably  the  breed  of  the  animal  and  the 
character  of  the  food.  Whatever  other  conditions 
may  prevail,  the  milk  is  always  of  a  higher  color 
where  the  animals  are  fed  on  fresh  green  forage. 
This  has  led  to  the  idea  that  the  color  of  the 
milk  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  condition 
of  the  chlorophyl  or  green  coloring  matter  of  the 
plant.  Careno*  has  suggested  that  as  the  chloro- 
phyl undergoes  a  change  when  the  plant  is  dried, 
the  digestive  organs  of  the  animal  will  have  a 
different  effect  upon  it,  and  so  account  for  the 
difference  in  color  in  the  milk. 

An  albuminoid  called  lactoprotein  has  also  been 
described  in  milk. 

Urea  to  the  extent  of  .001  of  1  per  cent  may 
also  be  regarded  as  a  normal  constituent  of  milk. 

*  Milch  Zeitung,  vol.  xxiv.  387. 


Variations   in    Quality  27 

Variations  in  quality  of  milk. —  We  have  already 
seen  that  the  amount  of  milk  secreted  may  vary 
greatly  under  the  influence  of  a  large  number  of 
varying  conditions.  So,  too,  we  find  that  there 
are  a  large  number  of  conditions  that  affect  the 
quality  of  the  milk,  meaning  thereby  the  relative 
proportion  of  the  various  constituents,  and  particu- 
larly the  proportion  of  fat  to  other  constituents. 
Some  of  these  changes  are  regular  and  progressive 
during  the  period  of  lactation.  Others  are  due  to 
definite  causes,  and  still  others  occur  from*  time  to 
time  to  which  we  have  as  yet  been  unable  to 
ascribe  any  definite  cause.  After  about  the  third 
or  fourth  week  of  lactation  the  percentage  of  fat 
in  the  milk  remains  nearly  constant  until  the  seventh 
or  eighth  month,  or  until  the  quantity  of  milk  begins 
to  rapidly  diminish  ;  but  while  the  percentage  of  fat 
does  not  markedly  change,  the  character  of  the  fat 
undergoes  several  marked  and  characteristic  changes. 
The  butter  globules  are  largest  in  size  early  in  the 
period  of  lactation,  and  constantly  diminish  as  lac- 
tation progresses,  at  the  same  time  that  they  in- 
crease in  number,  so  that  the  total  amount  of  fat 
is  not  greatly  changed.  Early  in  the  period  of  lac- 
tation there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  olein.  In 
some  cases  it  may  amount  to  50-  per  cent  of  the 
total  fat.  As  the  lactation  progresses  the  propor- 
t'on  of  olein  decreases  and  stearin  and  palmitin  in- 
creases, until  the  proportion  of  olein  may  fall  as  low 
as  20  per  cent.  This  change  is  more  marked  when 
the  animal  changes  from  fresh  to  dry  food,  as  the 


28  Milk   and   Its   Products 

period  of  lactation  progresses.  The  hardening  of 
the  fat  and  the  shrinking  in  the  size  of  the  glob- 
ules are  also  more  marked  when  the  animal  again 
becomes  pregnant.  In  the  case  of  cows  that  are 
milked  for  a  prolonged  period,  as  sometimes  hap- 
pens with  farrow  and  spayed  cows,  the  milk  often 
becomes  abnormally  rich,  not  only  in  fat,  but  in 
casein ;  and  in  such  cases  the  fat  is  usually  made 
up  of  very  minute  globules. 

It  is  usually  observed  that  milks  drawn  at 
night  and  morning  differ  quite  widely  in  the  per- 
centage of  fat.  This  is  not  because  there  is  any 
difference  in  the  milk  secreted  by  night  or  by  day, 
although  when  cows  lie  still  there  is  a  larger  per- 
centage of  water  and  a  correspondingly  less  per- 
centage of  solids  in  the  milk.  The  difference  in 
the  milk  drawn  at  morning  and  evening  is  due  to 
the  unequal  time  that  elapses  between  the  periods. 
In  general,  the  milk  is  richest  in  fat  that  is  drawn 
after  the  shortest  period,  and  this  has  been  shown 
to  be  the  case  where  cows  have  been  milked  three 
or  four  and  even  five  times  per  day.  It  is, 
however,  not  an  invariable  rule  that  the  milk  is 
richest  succeeding  the  shortest  period.  Not  infre- 
quently it  has  been  found  that  the  milk  is  richer 
after  the  longer  period.  In  a  series  of  observa- 
tions made  by  the  writer  upon  12  cows,  ex- 
tending over  221  days,  in  72  cases  the  percentage 
of  fat  was  greater  in  -the  morning ;  in  114  cases 
it  was  greater  in  the  evening,  and  in  35  cases 
there  was  a  difference  of  .1  of  1  per  cent  or  less 


First   and   Last   Milk   Drawn  29 

between  the  morning  and  the  evening  milk.  In  this 
instance  the  period  from  evening  to  morning  was 
about  two  hours  longer.  The  amount  of  variation 
that  may  occur  between  the  morning  and  evening  milk 
is  often  very  considerable.  In  the  great  majority 
of  cases  it  is  not  more  than  .5  of  1  per  cent, 
but  variations  so  great  as  2  or  2.5  per  cent  be- 
tween the  milk  of  one  morning  and  that  of  the 
preceding  or  following  evening  have  frequently 
been  noticed.  It  is  probable  that  a  part  of  this 
variation  may  be  explained  by  the  action  of  the 
lymphatics  of  the  udder  in  reabsorbing  a  part  of 
the  fat  when  the  milk  remains  for  a  long  time 
iu  the  vessels  of  the  udder. 

There  is  also  a  considerable  variation  in  the 
milk  from  day  to  day.  This  is  usually  not  so 
great  as  between  the  morning  and  evening  milking, 
but  it  not  infrequently  amounts  to  1  per  cent. 
Such  daily  variations  may  be  ascribed  to  changes 
in  the  climate  or  ether  environment  of  the  cows, — 
the  effect  of  storms,  the  effect  of  change  of  food, 
the  effect  of  slight  indispositions,  etc.;  but  there 
are  numerous  conditions  not  usually  or  readily 
recognized  by  the  owner  that  affect  the  composition 
of  the  milk.  It  has  been  noted  in  many  instances 
that  the  normal  effect  of  a  slight  .febrile  condition 
of  the  animal  is  to  largely  increase  the  percentage 
of  fat  and  albumin.  If  the  febrile  condition  con- 
tinues, and  particularly  if  it  grows  more  severe, 
the  fat  then  falls  as  quickly  as  it  had  risen,  and 
to  a  correspondingly  lower  point. 


30  Milk   and    Its   Products 

The  variation  in  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
milk  first  and  last  drawn  is  very  great.  The  first 
milk  drawn  is  much  the  poorer  in  fat.  Differ- 
ences so  wide  as  1  and  10  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  first  and  last  few  pints  have  not  infrequently 
been  noticed.  This  is  due  in  large  measure  to  the 
fact  that  the  larger  globules  of  fat,  being  of 
nearly  the  same  size  as  the  smaller  milk  ducts, 
pass  along  these  vessels  less  readily  than  the  more 
fluid  portions  of  the  milk,  and  are  only  drawn 
out  with  the  last  milk  drawn.  The  milk  first 
drawn  has  been  in  the  milk  cisterns  and  larger 
vessels  for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  and  so 
has  been  subject  to  the  reabsorptive  action  of  the 
lymphatics  for  a  longer  time,  which  also  would 
tend  to  make  it  poorer  in  fat. 

The  food  also  has  a  considerable  influence  upon 
the  quality  of  the  milk,  although  the  quantity  of 
the  milk  is  more  easily  affected  by  changes  in  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  food  than  is  quality. 
In  fact,  with  cows  kept  under  favorable  conditions, 
with  an  abundant  supply  of  food,  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  increase  the  proportion  of  fat  to  other 
solids  by  a  change  in  the  food.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  the  amount  of  the  various  constituents  of 
the  milk  is  not  easily  affected  by  the  food,  the 
quality  of  the  constituents  themselves  may  be 
considerably  influenced,  notably  in  the  case  of  the 
fat.  Certain  foods  have  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  character  of  the  milk  fat.  Thus  linseed  meal, 
gluten  meal  and  certain  other  foods  make  a  soft, 


Relation   of  Fat   to    Casein  31 

oily  fat,  while  cotton -seed  meal,  the  seeds  of  the 
various  legumes  and  wheat  bran  make  a  hard  fat. 
Constituents  other  than  the  fat  are  not  so  readily 
affected  in  this  way. 

Of  the  constituents  of  milk,  the  ash  and  the 
sugar  are  the  least  variable,  the  fat  and  albumin 
the  most  variable,  while  the  casein  usually  bears  a 
nearly  constant  ratio  to  the  fat.  The  percentage 
of  water  also  varies  considerably.  The  causes  of 
the  variation  of  the  fat  have  already  been  noticed. 
The  proportion  of  albumin  is  very  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  physical  condition  of  the  cow,  and 
it  has  been  shown,  notably  by  Van  Slyke  (see 
Chapter  XIII.),  that  with  what  may  be  called  normal 
milk, — that  is,  milk  containing  from  3  to  4.5  per 
cent  of  fat, — the  proportion  of  casein  rises  or  falls 
in  almost  exact  ratio  with  the  fat,  but  when  the 
fat  rises  above  this  point  the  casein  does  not 
follow  in  the  same  proportion. 

A  notion  is  prevalent  that  the  percentage  of  fat 
in  the  milk  is  also  affected  by  the  age  of  the  cow ; 
that  during  the  first  and  second  periods  of  lactation 
the  young  cow  usually  gives  milk  poorer  in  fat 
than  when  she  is  mature.  During  the  years  of 
greatest  vigor  the  percentage  of  fat  is  supposed  to 
be  fairly  uniform  ;  but  in  cows  of  advanced  age  it 
may  sometimes  again  fall  to  a  low  point.  Recently 
some  records  have  been  published*  that  go  to  show 
that  the  age  of  the  cow  has  little,  if  any,  influence 

*Holstein  Friesian  Herd  Book,  vols.  13,  14,  15,  16,  17.     Cornell    University 
Agr.  Expt.  Station,  Bulletin  No.  169. 


32  Milk   and   Its   Products 

on  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk.  IE  the  one 
case  the  observations  were  made  upon  a  large  num- 
ber of  cows  of  all  ages,  for  a  week  at  a  time,  com- 
paratively early  in  the  period  of  lactation.  In  the 
other  the  observations  were  made  upon  a  single  herd 
extending  over  several  years,  and  the  percentages  of 
fat  are  the  average  for  the  whole  period  of  lactation 
The  percentages  of  fat  for  the  different  ages  are  as 
follows  : 

"  Official "  weekly  tests  of  Observations  on   Cornell 

Holstein-Friesian  cows.  University  herd,  1891-8. 

No.  Average  No.  Average 

of  Cows,  per  cent  fat.  of  Cows,  per  cent  fat. 

2-year-olds 147  3.29  25  3.71 

3-year-olds 81  3.31  25  3.71 

4-year-olds  .   .       .   .       59  3.41  18  3.68 

5-year-olds 37  3.42  12  3.60 

6-year-olds 36  3.34  8  3.49 

7-year-olds 22  3.25  5  3.68 

8-year-olds  .       .   .  \       14  3.40  \ 

9-year-olds   ....       10  3.37  J  * 

10-year-olds 9  3.83 

11-  and  12-year-olds  -         4  3.57 

The  breed  of  the  cow  also  influences  very  largely 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk.  Cows  of  certain 
breeds  normally  give  milk  much  richer  in  fat  than 
others. 

The  following,  compiled  from  a  large  number 
of  analyses  made  at  various  American  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations,  will  give  a  general  idea  of 
the  average  composition  of  the  milk  of  the  more 
common  breeds,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  total  solids 
and  fat: 


Milk   of  Different   Breeds 

Solids.  Fat. 

Jersey 14.70  5.35 

Guernsey 14.71  5.16 

Devon 14.50  4.60 

Shorthorn 13.38  4.05 

Ayrshire. 12.61  3.66 

Holstein-Friesian 11.85  3.42 


The  variation  due  to  breed  includes  not  only  the 
amount  of  fat,  and  the  color  and  melting  point  of 
the  fat,  but  the  size  of  the  milk  globules.  In  some 
breeds  the  milk  globules  are  uniformly  large,  in 
others  extremely  small,  and  in  still  others  both  large 
and  small  globules  are  found. 

While  there  is  a  distinct  difference  in  the  qual- 
ity of  the  milk  of  the  different  breeds,  the  dif- 
ferent individuals  in  the  breed  also  vary  largely  in 
the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  difference  in  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  milk  from  different  cows  of 
the  same  breed  is  quite  as  great  as  the  average 
differences  between  the  breeds ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest  percent- 
age of  fat  in  the  milk  of  different  individuals  of 
the  same  breed  is  as  great  as  the  difference  be- 
tween the  average  percentage  of  fat  in  the  breeds 
giving  the  richest  and  poorest  milk. 

The  variations  due  to  the  breed  of  the  animal 
extend,  of  course,  in  some  measure  to  the  butter 
made  from  the  milk.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
the  color  and  hardness  of  the  fat.  But  while 
these  differences  are  sufficient  in  amount  to  be 
characteristic,  they  scarcely  affect  the  quality  of 
the  butter  as  a  whole.  While  some  partisans  may 


34  Milk   and   Its   Products 

contend  that  the  butter  made  by  their  favorite  breed 
is  of  superior  quality,  it  would  be  well-nigh  impos- 
sible, in  any  given  case,  by  an  examination  of  the 
butter,  to  say  from  what  breed  of  cows  it  had 
been  made.  Butter  of  the  very  best  quality  in  tex- 
ture, color  and  flavor  may  be  made  from  the  milk 
of  any  breed  of  cows. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  PRODUCTION  OF  MILK— DAIRY   CATTLE 

THE  prosperity  of  any  dairy  industry  is  very  largely 
dependent  upon  the  economic  production  of  the  raw 
material,  namely,  milk.  Unless  milk  is  produced  at 
a  profit  to  the  farmer  or  dairyman,  it  is  impossible 
to  establish  a  permanently  successful  manufacturing 
industry  upon  it. 

While  it  is  without  the  scope  of  this  work  to  dis- 
cuss all  the  phases  of  economical  milk  production, 
every  manufacturer  of  milk  products  should  have  at 
least  some  understanding  of  the  various  conditions 
which  so  closely  underlie  the  prosperity  of  the  industry. 

Milk  a  maternal  function. — As  has  been  mentioned 
in  a  preceding  chapter,  milk  is  produced  as  a  part  of 
the  maternal  function  of  the  females  of  the  class  mam- 
malia, but  while  maternity  is  the  efficient  stimulus  to 
milk  production,  the  commercial  production  of  milk  in 
the  highly  civilized  and  specialized  animal  known  as 
the  dairy  cow,  is  influenced  to  such  a  degree  by  so 
many  other  conditions  that  we  are  in  danger  of  over- 
looking the  part  that  maternity  plays  in  milk  secretion. 

Wild  animals,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  practically 
all  domesticated  animals,  secrete  milk  solely  to  supply 
the  young  with  food  until  such  time  as  it  is  able  to 

(35) 


36  Milk    and    Its   Products 

secure  and  digest  food  of  the  same  kind  and  nature 
as  its  parents.  The  function  of  milk  secretion  in  all 
such  animals,  then,  begins  when  the  young  is  born, 
increases  rapidly  for  a  few  days  or  weeks,  as  the 
developing  infant  requires  more  food,  and  then  grad- 
ually diminishes  as  the  infant  with  continued  growth 
begins  to  seek  its  natural  and  permanent  food,  and 
finally  entirely  ceases  when  the  young  is  able  to  get 
its  own  subsistence,  at  the  age  of  a  few  weeks  in  the 
case  of  most  small  animals,  and  in  no  event  longer 
than  a  few  months  even  with  the  largest  forms. 

The  cow  the  only  commercial  milk  producer. — His- 
tory does  not  tell  us  how  the  cow  came  to  be  devel- 
oped as  the  preeminent  producer  of  milk  for  man's 
use.  In  all  probability  the  milk  of  the  goat  and  the 
ass  was  used  by  man  before  that  of  the  cow.  But 
in  her  development  the  cow  has  shown  herself  to  be 
so  much  more  adaptable  to  the  commercial  production 
of  milk  as  to  have  distanced  all  other  animals  in  this 
respect.  There  is  no  historical  evidence  that  leads 
one  to  believe  that  in  her  wild  state  the  cow  had  any 
greater  tendency  to  give  milk  in  excess  of  the  demands 
of  her  offspring  or  for  longer  periods  of  time  than 
many  other  animals.  The  domestication  of  the  cow 
has  resulted  in  developing  an  animal  in  which  the 
capacity  for  secretion  has  been  multiplied  many  times, 
and  the  duration  of  secretion  has  been  made  practi- 
'cally  continuous.  As  a  liberal  estimate,  a  vigorous 
calf  would  not  need  more  than  20  pounds  of  milk  per 
day  for  the  first  four  months  of  its  life,  or  2,400 
pounds  of  milk,  and  this,  or  less,  would  be  all  that  a 


The   Lactation  Period  37 

normal  wild  or  semi -wild  cow  would  be  likely  to  pro- 
duce in  a  year.  Numerous  cows  have  lived  that  have 
produced  more  than  ten  times  this  amount,  or  24,000 
pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  the  largest  amount  on  record 
being  30, 318  J  pounds  of  milk  given  by  the  Holstein 
cow,  Pietertje  2d,  in  1888. 

Factors  in  the  production  of  milk. — The  chief  fac- 
tors on  which  the  production  of  milk  depends  are: 
(1)  Maternity,  or  the  period  of  lactation;  (2)  the 
inherent  capacity  of  the  cow,  which  in  general  is 
largely  determined  by  her  breed  and  hereditary  char- 
acteristics, but  always  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  inde- 
pendent of  them;  (3)  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  food  supply. 

The  lactation  period. — As  has  already  been  stated, 
the  domesticated  cow  has  been  developed  so  that  the 
production  of  milk  is  practically  continuous.  Never- 
theless, pregnancy  and  parturition  play  a  very  impor- 
tant part  in  the  production  of  milk.  While  cows 
may,  and  often  do,  secrete  milk  continuously  for  two, 
three  or  four  years  without  producing  a  calf,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  birth  of  a  calf  serves  to  stimulate 
the  secretion  of  milk  to  such  an  extent  that  prac- 
tically all  dairymen  are  agreed  that  milk  is  produced 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions  when  the  cow 
produces  a  calf  at  regular  intervals  each  year,  and 
this  regardless  of  the  value  of  the  calf  when  born. 
It  is  also  found  that  a  period  of  rest  before  par- 
turition is  essential  to  the  largest  production  of  milk 
after  the  calf  is  born;  that  is  to  say,  the  cow  will 
secrete  more  milk  in  a  year  if  she  goes  dry  for  two 


38  Milk   and   Its   Products 

to  four  weeks  before  calving,  than  though  she  is 
milked  right  up  to  calving,  as  often  may  be  done. 
So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  the  good  effect  of  this 
dry  period  is  very  largely  physiological,  the  secreting 
glands  in  the  udder  are  stimulated  to  greater  activity 
by  reason  of  having  been  inactive  for  a.  short  space. 
While  dairymen  often  speak  of  this  period  of  dry  ness 
as  a  resting  period,  its  good  effect  is  probably  not 
so  much  due  to  the  resting  of  the  general  vital 
powers  of  the  animal  as  to  the  physiological  con- 
dition of  the  udder  itself. 

In  most  cows  when  the  period  of  pregnancy  has 
reached  about  the  seventh  month,  there  is  a  marked 
diminution  in  the  flow  of  milk,  and  the  udder  shrinks 
rapidly  in  size.  If  now  regular  milking  ceases,  the 
cow  soon  "dries  up,"  the  udder  shrinks  away  and 
becomes  flaccid  and  empty,  except  for  a  small  amount 
of  watery  saline  fluid.  About  two  weeks  before  par- 
turition, the  udder  begins  to  take  on  renewed  activity. 
It  increases  rapidly  in  size,  but  remains  soft  and  spongy 
under  normal  conditions  until  a  very  short  time 
before  calving.  If  the  cow  is  very  fat,  if  she  is 
fed  heavily  on  stimulating,  heating  foods,  or  if  there 
are  other  conditions  that  tend  to  plethora  of  the  body, 
the  swelling  of  the  udder  may  be  unduly  large,  take 
on  an  inflammatory  character,  and  the  udder  becomes 
caked.  In  cows  of  a  heavy  milking  habit  this  often 
is  a  very  serious  condition,  and  may  even  destroy 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal,  or  at  least  one  or  more 
quarters  of  the  udder.  It  is  obviated  by  taking  care 
that  the  animal  is  fed  only  loosening  and  cooling 


Duration   of  Flow  39 

foods,  and  that  the  bowels  are  kept  free  and  open. 
Ordinarily,  milk  does  not  appear  in  the  udder  more 
than  a  few  hours  before  parturition.  It  is  usually 
abundant  as  soon  as  parturition  takes  place,  and  its 
regular  and  complete  removal,  having  due  regard  for 
the  condition  of  the  animal,  is  a  very  efficient  means 
of  establishing  a  lar,ge  flow.  And  if  there  are  no 
troubles  attending  parturition  and  the  establishment 
of  the  milk  flow,  the  animal  may  be  fed  liberally  as 
soon  as  the  milk  has  lost  its  colostrum  character, 
and  under  favorable  conditions  of  health,  £ood  and 
treatment,  the  flow  of  milk  will  increase  for  two  to 
four  weeks  after  the  calf  is  dropped,  at  which  time 
it  ordinarily  has  reached  its  maximum.  From  this 
time,  favorable  conditions  continuing,  the  flow  of 
milk  may  be  kept  very  nearly  constant  for  several 
months.  If  the  cow  is  to  produce  a  calf  regularly 
each  year,  she  will  naturally  be  bred  about  three 
months  after  calving.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for 
cows  to  show  a  quite  marked  diminution  in  the  milk 
flow  immediately  after  service,  but  the  best  cows  will 
continue  to  yield  milk  with  very  little  diminution 
until  the  foetus  begins  to  grow  and  make  demands 
upon  the  mother  at  the  fifth  or  sixth  month  of  preg- 
nancy. From  this  time  until  the  seventh  month  there 
will  be  a  regular  and  quite  rapid  diminution  in  the 
flow  until  the  tendency  to  go  dry  is  strong,  as  has 
already  been  said,  at  about  the  seventh  month. 

The  operation  of  milking. — The  production  of  .milk 
is  also  dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the 
operation  of  milking.  A  skilful  milker  will  get  ap- 


40  Milk   and   Its   Products 

preciably  more  milk  from  a  cow,  or  lot  of  cows,  in 
the  course  of  a  season  than  an  unskilful  one.  The 
milk  should  be  drawn  from  the  cow  as  rapidly,  as 
quietly,  and  as  easily  as  possible.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  it  should  also  be  completely  removed. 
Downward  stroking  manipulations  of  the  udder  are 
of  some  use  in  removing  the  very  last  portions,  but 
the  method  advocated  by  Hegelund*  for  this  purpose 
some  years  ago  has  not  been  generally  adopted. 
Regularity  in  the  time  of  milking  is  also  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  securing  large  amounts,  more  particu- 
larly in  keeping  up  the  milk  flow,  and  preventing 
rapid  drying  off  toward  the  close  of  lactation.  The 
interval  between  milkings  also  affects  the  amount  pro- 
duced. Up  to  a  certain  limit  the  amount  of  milk 
produced  will  be  increased  by  shortening  the  milking 
period,  and  it  is  by  no  means  infrequent  to  milk  cows 
three  or  four  times  daily,  at  intervals  of  eight  or  six 
hours,  and  practically  all  large  records  of  production 
are  made  under  such  treatment.  When  the  interval 
is  shortened  to  less  than  six  hours,  the  disturbance 
to  the  animal  checks  ttye  milk  flow  quite  as  much  as 
the  increased  frequency  of  removal  tends  to  increase 
it,  and  no  advantage  has  as  yet  been  gained  by 
milking  cows  oftener  than  four  times  a  day.  It  is 
difficult  to  make  an  exact  standard  with  respect  to 
the  relation  between  frequency  of  milking  and  amount 
of  milk  secured,  but  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  the 
amount  of  milk  will  be  increased  if  the  cow  is  milked 
as  often  as  her  udder  becomes  moderately  distended. 

*Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  213. 


Bad   Milking   Habits  41 

Cows  easily  contract  habits  with  respect  to  milk- 
ing, and  often  tt^ese  habits  are  very  disagreeable  and 
amount  to  a  good  deal  of  loss.  Many  cows  will  not 
"give  down"  the  milk  unless  they  are  fed  at,  or  just 
before,  the  time  of  milking.  Occasional  cows  will 
yield  very  much  more  milk  for  a  favorite  milker  than 
for  a  stranger.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  common 
practice,  particularly  in  small  herds,  that  each  milker 
should  milk  the  same  cows  each  day.  In  large  herds, 
however,  where  milkers  necessarily  have  to  be 
changed  frequently,  pains  are  taken  to  pre-vent  the 
contraction  of  any  such  habits,  and  the  cows  are 
milked  indiscriminately,  and  so  have  no  chance  to 
form  an  attachment  for  any  particular  milker.  It  is 
a  common  opinion  among  dairymen  that  milking 
habits  are  more  easily  formed  during  the  first  lacta- 
tion of  the  heifer,  and  care  is  taken  that  the  heifers 
be  milked  as  well  as  possible,  and  that  their  lactation 
period  be  prolonged  as  closely  as  possible  up  to  the 
time  of  dropping  the  second  calf.  There  is  no  dis- 
advantage in  such  practice,  even  if  it  often  fails  to 
yield  tangible  results.  Mechanical  milking  machines, 
that  have  been  the  subject  of  so  much  and  so  long 
continued  experiment,  have  now  reached  practical 
form,  and  are  being  successfully  introduced  in  many 
large  dairies. 

The  individual  capacity  of  the  cow. — No  single  fact 
in  milk  production  is  of  more  importance,  so  far  as 
profit  and  loss  is  concerned,  than  that  the  cow  is  a 
law  unto  herself  in  respect  to  the  amount  of  milk 
that  she  can  be  made  to  give.  Profitable  dairying 


42  Milk   and  Its   Products 

depends  upon  distinguishing  between  productive  and 
non-productive  cows,  and  there  is  no  one  thing  that 
will  secure  greater  improvement  to  a  dairyman  than 
weeding  out  the  unprofitable  cows  in  the  dairy,  and 
supplying  their  places  with  those  that  are  profitable 
producers;  at  the  same  time,  there  is  no  factor  more 
generally  neglected  by  the  dairymen  of  the  United 
States  than  this.  It  therefore  becomes  a  matter  of 
some  importance  that  the  dairyman  should  be  skilled 
in  distinguishing  between  productive  and  unproduc- 
tive cows. 

Relation  of  form  to  capacity. — In  the  development 
of  the  dairy  cow,  and  particularly  in  the  formation 
of  the  various  dairy  breeds,  it  has  been  noticed  that 
the  capacity  to  produce  milk  is  to  a  certain  extent 
correlated  with  certain  well  marked  and  easily  recog- 
nized characteristics  of  form.  This  has  led  to  the 
distinction  between  the  so  called  dairy  and  beef  types 
of  animals.  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  dairy 
form  is  the  wedge  shape  ;  that  is,  the  larger  develop- 
ment of  the  hind  quarters,  and  the  corresponding  less 
development  of  the  fore  'quarters,  so  that  if  the  cow 
is  viewed  from  the  front  or  side,  there  is  a  distinctly 
wedge-shaped  appearance,  with  the  apex  of  the  wedge 
toward  the  head.  This  is  contrasted  with  the  charac- 
teristic rectangular  shape  of  the  beef  animal.  In 
connection  with  the  wedge  shape,  a  large  degree  of 
angularity  and  lack  of  muscular  development,  particu- 
larly along  the  ribs  and  loins  and  on  the  shoulders 
and  thighs,  is  quite  as  characteristic  of  the  dairy 
animal  as  the  wedge  shape  itself.  In  addition  it  is, 


Use   of  Score    Cards  43 

of  course,  essential  that  the  cow,  in  order  to  be  a 
profitable  milk  producer,  must  have  a  large,  capacious 
udder,  full  of  secreting  follicles,  and,  as  the  udder  is 
an  external  organ,  its  size  and  capacity  are  quite 
readily  and  easily  determined  by  examination.  Capa- 
cious digestive  and  respiratory  organs  are  also  im- 
portant, as  indicating  activity  of  the  vital  functions 
of  the  animal,  and  strong,  vigorous  constitutional 
powers.  So  useful  are  these  external  characters 
known  to  be  as  indicating  capacity  for  secretion  that 
dairymen  find  it  worth  while  to  train  themselves  in 
recognizing  these  indications  and  comparing  cows  one 
with  another  with  respect  to  their  external  indica- 
tions for  capacity  for  milk  secretion,  and  a  large 
amount  of  instruction  in  schools  and  colleges  is  given 
along  these  lines.  Training  in  these  matters  is  facili- 
tated by  the  use  of  score  cards  or  scales  of  points, 
which  enumerate  and  describe  the  general  external 
characteristics  of  the  cow,  and  assign  numerical 
values  to  the  different  characters  in  proportion  to 
their  assumed  relative  importance.  Most  breeders7 
associations,  and  very  many  colleges,  have  formulated 
and  used  such  scales  of  points.  They  naturally  vary 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  persons 
who  formulate  them.  A  sample  card  is  shown  on  the 
next  page.  The  chief  value  of  a  score  card  is  to 
teach  the  novice  to  make  a  careful  examination  of 
every  part.  His  final  judgment,  however,  should  be 
based  on  the  individual  as  a  whole,  and  this  is  best 
trained  by  practice  in  comparing  individuals  side 
bv  side. 


44 


Milk   and  Its   Products 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE 


Scale  of  Points — Cow 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE — 

Weight. — Estimated pounds;  actual 

Form. — Wedge-shaped,  as  viewed  from  front,  side  and  top. .  .  5 

Form. — Spare,  as  indicated  by  prominent  joints  and  clean 
bone  and  lack  of  muscular  development  along  ribs  and 
loins 

Quality. — Hair  fine,  soft;  skin  pliable,  loose,  medium  thick- 
ness; secretion  yellow,  abundant 

Constitution. — Vigorous,  as  indicated  by  alert  expression, 
evidently  active  vital  functions,  and  general  healthy 
appearance 6 

HEAD  AND  NECK — 

Muzzle. — Clean  cut;  mouth  large;  nostrils  large 

Eyes. — Large,  bright 

Face. — Lean,  long;  quiet  expression 

Forehead. — Broad,  slightly  dished 

Ears. — Medium  size;  fine  texture 

Neck. — Fine,  medium  length;  throat  clean;  light  dewlap.. .  . 

FORE-    AND    HlND-QtTARTERS — 

Withers. — Lean,  thin.    Shoulders. — Angular,  not  fleshy   ...         3 
Hips. — Far  apart;  not  lower  than  spine.  .  .  .  J 

Rump. — Long,  wide,  comparatively  level.. .  > 

Thurls. — High,  wide  apart \ 

Thighs.— Thin,  long 2 

Legs. — Straight,  short;  shank  fine 1 

BODY— 

Chest. — Deep;  with  arge  girth  and  broad  on  floor  of  chest; 
well-sprung  ribs 10 

Abdomen. — Large,  deep;  indicative  of  capacity;  well  sup- 
ported    4 

Back. — Lean,  straight,  chine  open.  Tail. — Long,  slim,  with 
fine  switch 4 

Loin. — Broad 2 

MILK-SECRETING  ORGANS — 

Udder. — Large,  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind;  extend 

ing  far  in  front  and  full;  quarters  even 20 

Udder. — Capacious,  flexible,  with  loose,  pliable  skin  covered 
with  short,  fine  hair 10 

Teats. — Convenient  size,  evenly  placed 2 

Milk  Veins. — Large,  tortuous,  long,  branching,  with  large 
milk  wells.  Escutcheon. — Spreading  over  thighs,  ex- 
tending high  and  wide 4  .  f 

Total .  100 

Animal Date 

Scored  by . . Total  Score. . . 


Points 
Deficient 


1 


Value  of  Records  45 

Through  natural  aptitude,  through  careful  and 
systematic  training,  and  through  constant  practice, 
very  many  persons  become  expert  in  the  selection  of 
cows,  and  the3r  are  able  to  distinguish  with  a  good 
degree  of  accuracy  between  cows  that  are  large  or 
small  producers.  Yet  no  matter  how  much  skill  may 
be  attained  along  these  lines,  the  fact  still  remains 
that  the  external  conformation  fails  to  coincide  with 
the  actual  production  of  the  animal  in  a  sufficient 
number  of  instances  so  that  it  is  never  safe  to  depend 
entirely  upon  outward  indications  in -selecting  cows. 

Value  of  records  of  production. — The  statement  is 
frequently  made,  and  generally  accepted,  that  there  is 
no  means  or  determining  the  prospective  value  of  a 
cow  for  the  production  of  milk  that  can  compare 
with  a  knowledge  of  what  the  animal  has  already 
done  as  determined  by  an  actual  record  of  production 
in  both  milk  and  fat  extending  through  a  year  or 
a  complete  period  of  lactation.  This  is  so  well 
recognized  that  all  dairy  cow  breeders'  associations 
are  making  provision  for  the  segregation  of  the  large 
producing  animals  of  the  various  breeds  into  a  class 
by  themselves,  known  as  the  advanced  registry  or 
register  of  merit,  admission  to  which  is  gained  only 
by  actual  production,  authenticated  by  disinterested 
supervision,  and  breeders  of  dairy  cattle  are  expend- 
ing thousands  of  dollars  each  year  to  secure  such 
authenticated  records  of  their  animals. 

Necessity  for  keeping  records. — If  records  of  pro- 
duction are  recognized  by  breeders  ot  pure -bred 
animals  as  an  essential  factor  in  the  breeding  and 


46  Milk   and   Its   Products 

selection  of  their  animals,  they  are  no  less  useful  to 
him  who  keeps  cows  merely  for  the  production  of 
milk,  without  regard  to  the  productive  value  of  their 
posterity.  It  has  been  demonstrated  many  times  that 
in  milk -producing  herds  where  no  records  are  kept 
there  will  be  found  anywhere  from  one  quarter  to  one- 
half,  and  sometimes  more,  cows  whose  total  production 
is  insufficient  to  pay  for  their  feed  and  care,  such 
cows  being  kept  at  an  actual  loss  to  their  owner, 
and  their  deficiency  covered  up  by  the  higher  pro- 
ducing animals.  There  are  many  herds,  the  total 
production  of  which  may  be  profitable  to  the  owner, 
in  which  from  10  to  25  per  cent  of  the  individual 
cows  are  kept  at  a  loss.  The  great  reason  for  this 
condition  of  affairs  is  the  fact  that  even  a  careful 
observer  will  fail  to  discriminate  between  a  profitable 
and  unprofitable  animal,  unless  an  actual  record  of 
the  production  of  each  animal  is  kept  from  day  to 
day.  This  is  comparatively  seldom  done,  especially 
in  herds  maintained  solely  for  milk  production.  But 
such  records  may  be  kept  at  comparatively  little 
cost,  even  when  the  butter  fat  is  determined,  and 
their  cost  will  be  returned  many  times  over  to  the 
owner  if  he  acts  upon  the  results  of  the  records, 
and  discards  from  his  herd  those  that  are  shown  to 
be  unprofitable.  As  has  already  been  stated,  there  is 
no  one  thing  which  would  result  in  more  increase  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  dairy  industry  as  a  whole,  and 
more  profit  to  the  individual  owner,  than  the  general 
keeping  of  records  of  production,  and  the  weeding  out 
of  the  unprofitable  animals,  as  shown  by  such  records. 


Food  as   a   Factor  47 

Where  the  keeping  of  records  of  production  is 
likely  to  prove  burdensome  on  individual  small  owners, 
it  has  been  found  that  this  work  may  be  done  to  great 
advantage  cooperatively,  and  the  success  of  cow-testing 
associations  in  many  localities  attests  this  fact. 

Food  as  a  factor  in  milk  production. — It  is  self- 
evident  that  feed  must  be  an  important  factor  in  the 
production  of  milk,  since  the  solids  in  milk  are  pro- 
duced directly  from  the  food.  It  matters  little  what 
the  conformation  or  the  hereditary  powers  of  the 
animal  may  be,  she  cannot  produce  milk  in  large 
amounts  for  long  periods  of  time  unless  she  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  the  material  from  which 
the  milk  is  made,  and,  in  general,  that  cow  is  the 
best  and  most  economical  that  can  transform  the 
largest  amount  of  food  into  a  corresponding  amount 
of  milk.  The  subject  of  feeding  of  domestic  animals, 
and  particularly  the  dairy  cow,  has  received  a  great 
deal  of  study  and  investigation  in  this  country  and 
Europe  in  the  last  fifty  years,  and  very  notable  ad- 
vances have  been  made  with  respect  to  the  science 
and  art  of  feeding  animals,  and  a  large  literature  has 
sprung  up  in  regard  to  this  question.  This  work  is 
not  intended  to  be  a  manual  of  cattle  feeding  in  any 
sense,  so  only  the  most  general  principles  in  respect 
to  feeding  dairy  cattle  will  be  touched  upon.  The 
ideal  ration  for  the  dairy  cow  must  be  abundant;  it 
must  be  nutritious;  it  must  be  palatable;  it  must  be 
succulent;  it  must  provide  a  sufficient  balance  be- 
tween the  proteid  and  non-proteid  nutrients,  and  it 
must  be  cheap. 


48  Milk   and   Its   Products 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  arid  written  about  the 
amount  of  food  that  should  be  given  to  a  cow  in 
milk,  and  various  standards  have  been  established. 
These  standards  are  useful  to  guide  the  inexperienced 
feeder,  the  chief  difficulty  concerning  them  being 
that  one  is  likely  to  get  the  idea  that  if  the  standard 
is  scientifically  established  on  a  proper  basis  all  that 
is  necessary  to  do  is  to  administer  the  standard 
amount  of  food  to  the  animal,  and  a  given  result  will 
be  obtained.  Such  is  not  the  case.  Animals  vary  in 
the  amount  of  food  that  they  are  able  to  use,  and 
more  particularly  in  the  amount  that  they  can  eco- 
nomically turn  into  product.  In  respect  to  the  dairy 
cow,  three  things  will  happen  if  she  is  fed  continu- 
ously all  the  food  that  she  will  eat  regularly  without 
disarranging  the  digestive  organs  or  going  "off  feed:" 
(1)  She  will  secrete  a  certain  amount  of  product 
(milk  and  milk  fat),  and  at  the  same  time  gain  in 
weight,  or  will  put  fat  on  her  body.  (2)  She  will 
make  a  similar  amount  of  product,  but  will  make  no 
gain  in  weight,  some  of  the  food  apparently  going  to 
waste.  (3)  She  will  ufee  all  of  the  food  consumed 
for  the  production  of  milk,  and  will  increase  regularly 
in  milk  secretion  as  the  food  is  increased  up  to  the 
limit  of  her  capacity  to  eat  and  digest.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  the  cows  in  this  latter  class  are  the  most 
valuable  to  their  owners,  and  experience  has  deter- 
mined that  they  are  more  numerous  than  was  formerly 
supposed. 

The  ideal  ration. — A  liberal  and  economical  ration 
for  the  best  type  of  dairy  cow  is  all  the  roughage 


The   Ideal   Ration  49 

(hay,  silage,  roots,  etc.)  she  will  eat,  and  one  pound 
of  grain  food  (concentrates)^  for  each  three  to  four 
pounds  of  milk  she  produces;  and  in  many  cases 
this  will  be  found  to  be  just  about  all  she  will  eat 
regularly  without  going  "off  feed." 

A  second  consideration  in  an  ideal  ration  is  that  it 
should  be  nutritious;  that  is  to  say,-  there  should  be 
a  certain  relation  between  the  digestible  and  indiges- 
tible parts  of  the  food.  The  cow  is  a  ruminant,  and 
the  digestive  organs  of  ruminants  have  been  devel- 
oped to  use  comparatively  large  amounts  of  foods, 
relatively  small  portions  of  which  are  digestible.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  so  to  combine  the  ration 
that  it  will  be  so  bulky  that  the  digestible  portion  will 
be  insufficient  to  support  the  animal  and  provide  a 
maximum  amount  of  product.  The  ration  should  be 
sufficiently  bulky,  on  the  one  hand,  to  fully  distend 
the  stomach  and  other  digestive  organs.  At  the  same 
time,  there  should  be  enough  digestible  material  to 
fully  meet  the  requirements  of  the  animal.  If,  how- 
ever, we  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  make  the  ration 
of  too  concentrated  or  easily  digested  foods,  the  ani- 
mal will  have  a  superabundance  of  digestible  material 
in  too  small  a  bulk  to  properly  distend  the  digestive 
organs.  The  most  frequent  result  of  this  is  that  the 
appetite  becomes  cloyed,  the  digestive  organs  disar- 
ranged, and  the  animal  goes  "off  feed."  Practical 
experience  has  shown  that  a  proper  balance  is  reached 
when  about  two -thirds  of  the  total  dry  matter  of  the 
ration  is  in  the  form  of  roughage,  and  one -third  in 
the  form  of  concentrates. 


50  Milk   and   Its   Products 

It  goes  without  saying  that  a  ration  cannot  be  of 
the  highest  degree  of  effectiveness  if  it  is  not  pala- 
table, if  the  animal  does  not  eat  it,  not  only  readily 
but  eagerly.  The  factors  of  palatability  are  not  well 
understood,  nor  always  easily  recognized,  and  our 
knowledge  of  them  is  to  a  very  considerable  extent 
empirical,  and  the  result  of  actual  observation  and 
experience.  About  all  that  can  be  said  in  this  respect 
is  that  of  two  rations  or  combinations  of  food  similar 
in  all  other  respects,  that  one  will  be  most  effective 
that  is  most  readily  eaten  by  the  animal.  There  are 
certain  adventitious  aids  to  palatability,  such  as  salt, 
water  or  succulence,  and  freshness.  The  peculiar  char- 
acteristics of  certain  plants  also  make  them  particu- 
larly palatable  or  unpalatable  for  certain  animals,  or 
classes  of  animals,  and  in  addition  there  are  various 
vegetable  aromatics  and  semi -tonics,  and  certain  inor- 
ganic salts,  that  are  recognized  as  having  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  appetite.  A  continuous  use  of  these 
latter  for  healthy  animals  seldom  results  in  distinct 
advantage.  The  secretion  of  milk  seems  to  be  inti- 
mately connected  with  <•  the  water  content  of  the  food. 
Milk  itself  is  a  watery  substance  (ordinarily  about 
seven -eighths  water),  and  of  course  the  water,  which 
makes  up  so  large  a  part  of  it,  demands  a  corres- 
ponding consumption  of  water  by  the  animal.  It 
seems  almost  necessary  that  a  certain  part  of  this 
water  should  be  regularly  incorporated  with  the  food 
or,  in  other  words,  it  is  of  great  advantage  for  the 
secretion  of  milk  that  at  least  a  part  of  the  food 
should  be  composed  of  materials  .containing  large 


The    Nutritive   Ratio  51 

amounrs  of  water,  like  fresh  forage,  silage,  fruits, 
roots,  etc.  So  well  is  this  recognized  that  many 
dairymen  find  it  economical  to  provide  a  regular  sup- 
ply of  succulent  foods  for  their  cows  in  milk,  even 
though  the  nutrients  in  such  foods  cost  more  than 
similar  amounts  would  in  the  dry  state. 

In  all  the  studies  and  investigations  that  have 
been  made  with  respect  to  the  nutrition  of  domestic 
animals,  no  one  has  received  more  attention  than  the 
relation  of  the  proteid,  or  nitrogenous  part  of  the 
nutrients,  to  the  non- protein  part.  Disregarding  the 
protein  supply  so  far  as  the  maintenance  of  the 
animal  is  concerned  (and  a  certain  amount  of  protein, 
as  is  well  known,  is  requisite  to  maintain  life), 
there  are  considerable  amounts  of  protein  in  the 
milk,  the  most  important  being  the  casein  and  albu- 
men of  the  milk,  which  together  comprises  more  than 
3  per  cent  of  the  milk  or  about  25  per  cent  of  the 
milk  solids.  This  protein,  of  course,  must  come  from 
the  protein  supply  in  the  food.  The  problem  of  fur- 
nishing sufficient  protein  in  dairy  foods  has  been 
greatly  simplified  by  the  introduction  of  certain  by- 
product commercial  foods  that  are  now  abundant  on 
the  markets,  so  that  it  is  no  longer  difficult,  nor 
very  expensive,  to  provide  a  sufficient  amount  of  pro- 
tein, and  it  is  found  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  "bal- 
ance" the  proteid  and  non -proteid  nutrients  so  care- 
fully as  formerly.  This  balance  is  ordinarily  ex- 
pressed by  the  nutritive  ratio,  and  a  dairy  ration  is 
now  considered  at  least  fairly  satisfactory  if  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  falls  anvwhere  between  1  :  4.5  and  1  :  6.5. 


52  Milk    and   Its  Products 

Last  of  all,  the  ideal  ration  should  be  cheap,  not 
necessarily  in  the  sense  of  being  made  up  of  low 
grade  or  low  cost  foods,  but  from  the  standpoint  of 
furnishing  the  largest  possible  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  at  the  lowest  cost.  Home-grown  foods 
ordinarily  cost  the  dairyman  less  than  commercial 
foods,  and  the  milk  producer  will  ordinarily  feed  most 
economically  who  uses  the  largest  possible  amount  of 
home-grown  foods.  On  the  other  hand,  commercial 
foods  in  nearly  all  markets,  if  well  selected  and  care- 
fully purchased,  may  be  fed  at  a  profit  if  the  cows 
are  well  selected  and  productive.  Market  fluctuations 
in  various  localities  make  it  possible  for  the  consumer 
of  commercial  foods  to  effect  considerable  saving  in 
his  feed  bills,  and  the  dairyman  can  scarcely  be  called 
an  intelligent  one  that  does  not  keep  well-informed 
in  regard  to  local  market  conditions  and  prices,  with 
respect  to  commercial  foods,  and  vary  his  purchases 
accordingly. 

Selection  of  breed.— The  development  of  the  milk- 
ing powers  of  the  dairy  cow  has  been  the  result  of 
evolution  and  selection. '  So  far  as  is  known,  all  of 
the  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  have  been  brought  up  to 
their  present  capacity  for  production  by  constantly 
selecting  the  highest  producing  individuals,  and  raising 
the  offspring  from  these  on  both  sides;  that  is  to  say, 
the  selection  of  the  bull  from  a  high -producing  cow 
has  been  considered  quite  as  important  as  the  raising 
of  female  calves  of  such  cows,  in  securing  improve- 
ment. The  importance  of  a  high-  producing  animal 
has  already  been  discussed.  In  order  to  produce  such 


Formation    of  a   Dairy    Herd  53 

animals,  constant  care  must  be  used  in  the  selection 
and  breeding. 

In  the  formation  of  a  dairy  herd  one  of  the  first 
questions  to  be  considered  is  the  choice  of  a  breed, 
and  whether  the  herd  shall  be  made  up  of  pure -bred  or 
grade  animals.  There  are  several  well-known  breeds 
of  dairy  cattle  in  the  United  States,  each  having  dis- 
tinct qualities,  and  each  having  strong  partizans. 
While,  undoubtedly,  some  breeds  are  better  fitted  for 
certain  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  than  are  others, 
still  the  matter  of  the  choice  of  a  breed  may  well  be 
left  to  individual  preference.  In  almost  any  location 
one  may  choose  a  breed  for  which  he  has  a  strong 
liking,  either  real  or  fancied,  and  be  assured  that  he 
can  establish  with  it  a  successful  herd.  Jerseys, 
Guernseys,  Holsteins,  Ayrshires,  Swiss,  Devons,  Red 
Polls,  and  even  Shorthorns,  make  a  varied  and  fairly 
long  list  of  breeds  from  which  to  select. 

Pure  breds  and  grades. — Whether  purely  bred  or 
grade  animals  should  be  selected  is  a  matter  upon 
which  there  may  be  more  difference  of  opinion.  By 
purely  bred  animals  are  meant  those  that  are  recorded 
in  the  herd  books  of  their  respective  breeds.  This  is 
the  narrow,  restricted  sense  of  the  term  "pure  bred," 
but  it  is  the  one  in  common  use  in  this  country.  A 
grade  animal  is  the  offspring  of  a  pure-bred  sire  and 
a  common  or  grade  dam.  The  offspring  of  a  pure- 
bred sire  and  a  common  or  "scrub"  dam,  is  called  a 
half-blood;  the  offspring  of  a  pure -bred  sire  and  a 
half-blood  dam  is  called  a  three -quarter -blood;  a 
three -quarter -blood  in  turn  bred  to  a  pure -bred  sire 


54  Milk  and   Its   Products 

will  produce  a  seven -eighths -blood,  and  so  on  ad 
infinitum.  Since  only  the  offspring  of  pure -bred 
parents  on  both  sides  are  eligible  to  registry  in  the 
herd  books  of  any  of  our  dairy  breeds,  it  follows  that 
no  matter  how  far  the  process  of  grading  up  by  the 
use  of  pure -bred  sires  on  grade  females  is  carried, 
pure  breds,  in  the  technical  sense,  can  never  be  pro- 
duced. Since  pure -bred  animals  are  sought  after  for 
breeding  purposes,  the  offspring  of  pure -bred  animals 
are,  therefore,  more  valuable,  and  command  a  higher 
price  than  do  the  offspring  of  grades.  Hence,  if  the 
value  of  the  calves  is  taken  into  consideration,  a  pure- 
bred herd  is  a  more  productive  one,  other  things  being 
equal,  than  a  grade  herd.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the 
grading -up  process  above  referred  to,  continually 
selecting  the  cows  that  are  the  best  producers,  it  is 
entirely  possible,  and  by  no  means  difficult,  to  estab- 
lish a  herd  of  grade  cows  that  will  equal,  in  the  pro- 
duction of  milk,  any  herd  of  pure-bred  animals. 
Hence,  if  the  main  product  alone  is  sought  after,  a 
grade  herd  may  produce  as  largely  as  a  pure -bred 
one;  but  if  the  by-product  in  calves  is  to  be  taken 
into  consideration,  a  pure -bred  herd  certainly  has  an 
advantage  over  a  grade  herd  of  equal  productive 
capacity. 

Maintenance  of  the  dairy  herd. — A  dairy  herd  may 
be  maintained  in  two  ways:  First,  by  continued  pur- 
chase of  mature  animals  to  replace  those  whose  period 
of  usefulness  has  passed.  There  are  many  conditions 
under  which  this  may  be  a  wise  practice.  If  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  whole  herd  composed  of  cows 


Maintaining    the   Herd  55 

in  their  full  productive  capacity;  if  there  is  abundant 
opportunity  for  selection  and  purchase  near  at  hand; 
if  there  is  a  reasonably  good  market  for  cows  that  are 
undesirable,  and  if  one  has  reasonable  skill  in  select- 
ing, and  good  ability  in  bargaining,  a  herd  of  high- 
productive  capacity  may  be  more  easily  and  more 
cheaply  maintained  in  this  way  than  by  attempting  to 
raise  young  animals  to  replace  those  that  are  worn  out. 

The  other  method  of  maintaining  the  herd  is,  of 
course,  by  raising  calves  to  supply  the  place  of  old 
cows  that  are  no  longer  profitable.  Such  a  fierd  will 
always  contain  a  considerable  number  of  young  ani- 
mals that  have  not  yet  reached  full  development,  and, 
therefore,  such  a  herd  will  seldom  equal  in  average 
production  per  animal  a  herd  that  is  maintained  wholly 
by  purchase.  At  the  same  time,  a  greater  degree  of 
uniformity  of  type  may  be  maintained  where  the  ani- 
mals are  raised.  If  land  is  abundant  and  cheap,  the 
cost  of  raising  a  calf,  up  to  the  time  that  she  becomes 
a  fully  developed  cow,  will  be  less  than  that  of  pur- 
chasing a  similar  animal  outright.  Through  force  of 
circumstances  by  far  the  greater  number  of  dairymen 
must  rely  on  raising  the  calves  necessary  to  maintain 
the  herd.  This  being  the  case,  the  ordinary  dairyman 
will  need  to  provide  himself  with  the  services  of  a  bull 
suitable  to  produce  useful  dairy  cows.  In  most  cases 
he  will  need  to  own  this  bull,  so  that  the  question  of 
the  selection  and  care  of  the  breeding  bull  has  an 
important  bearing  upon  the  maintenance  of  the  dairy 
herd. 

Selection  of  the  bull. — It  goes  without  question  that 


56  Milk    and   Its  Products 

such  a  bull  should  be  purely  bred.  There  are  still 
far  too  many  immature  and  ill-bred  bulls  in  use. 
As  a  matter  of  convenience,  a  yearling  bull  is  turned 
with  the  herd  about  the  first  of  June,  and  in  the 
course  of  two  or  three  months,  when  all,  or  nearly 
all,  of  the  cows  have  become  pregnant,  and  he  has 
fattened  up,  he  is  sold  again  at  a  price  little,  if  any, 
below  his  cost,  and  the  dairyman  is  without  the 
trouble  of  the  care  of  a  bull  for  several  months.  If, 
in  addition  to  this,  little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
breeding  of  the  bull,  it  is  easily  seen  that  little,  if 
any,  improvement  in  the  character  of  the  herd  can 
be  expected  from  his  offspring.  The  progeny  that  a 
bull  has  already  produced,  is  by  far  the  best  index 
of  his  usefulness  that  a  prospective  purchaser  can 
have.  Cattle  do  not  reach  full  maturity,  in  either 
sex,  until  they  are  about  four  or  five  years  old.  Con- 
sequently, the  best  bull  to  select  is  a  bull  not  less 
than  four  years  old  that  has  already  begot  cows  of  a 
high  productive  capacity.  Such  a  bull  is,  of  course, 
more  difficult  to  control,  and  more  expensive  to  keep, 
but  he  is  worth  many  times  the  trouble  and  expense, 
as  compared  with  an  immature  yearling. 

In  the  selection  of  a  bull  much  has  been  made  of 
various  so-called  milk  signs:  Rudimentary  teats,  milk 
veins,  escutcheon,  etc.  While  each  and  all  of  these 
may  be  of  some  value,  they  are  by  no  means  to  be  set 
against  the  record  that  a  bull  has  made  in  the  pro- 
duction of  his  daughters.  Other  personal  character- 
istics of  the  bull  that  indicate  vigor  of  constitution, 
good  digestive  organs,  and  vital  activities,  in  general, 


Management   of  the   Bull  57 

are  a  loose,  mellow  hide;  a  bold,  bright  eye;  an  active 
gait  and  disposition.  These  are  of  great  importance 
as  indicating  capacity  to  reproduce  similar  character- 
istics in  his  offspring. 

Management  of  the  bull. — The  management  of  the 
bull  on  a  dairy  farm  is  often  a  matter  of  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  and  perplexity.  In  a  herd  of  ordi- 
nary size  a  single  bull  is  sufficient,  and  it  is  usually 
necessary  that  he  be  kept  from  the  herd  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  This  means  that  he  must 
be  kept  in  solitary  confinement.  The  result  of  this 
is,  too  often,  that  his  temper  becomes  uncertain,  and 
his  breeding  powers  impaired  from  lack  of  exercise. 
In  all  cases  where  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  it  is  better 
that  the  bull  should  run  with  the  herd  of  cows. 
With  a  little  care  this  can  frequently  be  done,  par- 
ticularly during  the  summer  and  fall,  when  the  cows 
are  all  pregnant  in  a  spring  calving  herd,  and  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer,  when  the  cows  are  all 
pregnant  in  a  fall  calving  herd. 

The  powers  and  temper  of  a  bull  may  also  be  safe- 
guarded by  giving  him  exercise  on  a  tread- power,  or 
hitched  by  a  long  rope  or  chain  to  a  wire  between 
two  upright  posts,  or  attached  to  a  pole  balanced 
upon  a  post  so  that  he  may  move  around  it.  Occa- 
sionally, also,  the  labor  of  a  bull  may  be  utilized 
upon  a  tread-power  for  cutting  feed,  pumping  water, 
or  separating  milk.  Sometimes  a  particularly  handy 
owner  will  break  a  bull  to  work  to  harness  or  in  a 
cart.  It  may  even  be  time  and  labor  well  spent  to 
give  a  bull  walking  exercise.  A  good,  vigorous  ani- 


58  Milk   and   Its   Products 

mal,  carefully  kept,  should  retain  his  breeding  powers 
up  to  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  or  even  beyond. 

Grading  .up  the  herd. — The  successful  and  pro- 
gressive dairyman  will  not  only  give  his  best  efforts 
toward  securing  a  herd  that  will  make  a  satisfactory 
production,  but  will  look  to  the  future,  and  secure 
still  further  improvement  by  breeding  from  his  herd 
succeeding  generations  that  shall  be  even  larger  pro- 
ducers than  their  ancestors.  Such  a  dairyman  may, 
if  he  chooses,  secure  as  the  foundation  herd  pure-bred 
animals  that  may  be  depended  upon  to  transmit  their 
qualities  to  their  descendants.  But  with  even  the 
highest-bred  animals  there  will  be  the  necessity  for 
selection,  if  the  original  standards  of  production  are 
to  be  maintained,  to.  say  nothing  of  being  increased. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  large  majority  of  dairymen 
seeking  to  improve  their  herds  must  depend,  more  or 
less,  upon  the  individual  animals  they  have  already 
on  hand  as  the  basis  from  which  to  start  the  im- 
provement. In  either  case,  careful  selection  must  be 
practiced,  and  a  knowledge  of  at  least  the  elementary 
principles  of  selection  is  'necessary  for  progress  along 
this  line.  It  is  proposed,  then,  briefly  to  indicate  the 
lines  along  which  an  attempt  to  breed  up,  or  improve, 
a  herd  of  common,  native  or  mixed  cattle  is  most 
likely  to  prove  successful. 

In  the  improvement  of  a  herd  of  cows  it  has  been 
very  common  to  recommend  that  the  practice  should 
be  to  use  a  pure-bred  bull,  and  to  raise  the  heifer 
calves  from  the  best  cows  in  the  herd.  Whether  or 
not  this  practice  is  correct  will  depend,  to  a  great 


Selection   of  Calves  59 

extent,  on  what  is  meant  by  the  term  "best  cows.'7 
If  it  means  merely  that  the  heifer  calves  from  the 
common  cows  that  are  the  highest  producers  are  to  be 
raised,  it  cannot  be  accepted  without  qualification. 
The  first  and  great  step  in  improvement  under  such  a 
course  of  breeding  comes  from  the  prepotent  qualities 
of  the  bull.  Logically,  therefore,  the  best  calves  to 
raise  are  those  in  which  the  prepotent  qualities  of  the 
male  are  most  clearly  shown  at  time  of  birth,  such  as 
color  markings,  or  similar  characteristics.  These  may 
or  may  not  be  the  offspring  of  the  highest -producing 
cows.  The  foundation  herd  of  cows  is  admittedly  in- 
ferior, even  in  the  best  of  them.  If  proper  judgment 
has  been  exercised  in  selecting  the  bull,  there  is  in 
him  greater  chance  for  improvement  than  exists  in  any 
of  the  cows,  even  the  best.  It  would,  therefore,  seem 
to  be  good  logic  and  safe  practice  to  disregard  the 
milking  qualities  of  the  cow  entirely  in  the  first  gen- 
eration, and  depend  on  the  prepotency  of  the  bull. 

A  great  advantage  in  the  rapid  improvement  of  a 
herd  of  cows  under  this  grading -up  process  is  the 
ability  to  raise  a  large  number  of  individuals  up  to 
the  time  they  begin  to  produce,  so  that  a  greater  num- 
ber may  be  available  from  which  to  select.  In  the 
first  generation,  therefore,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to 
be  able  to  raise  all  of  the  half-blood  heifer  calves  that 
resemble  their  sire  and  that  are  born  strong  and  with 
good  vital  powers,  irrespective  of  the  qualities  of  their 
dams.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  circumstances  of 
the  owner  do  not  admit  of  rearing  so  large  a  number, 
and  some  selection  must  be  made  at  the  time  of  birth. 


60  Milk   and   Its   Products 

If  we  concede  that  it  is  not  an  entirely  safe  practice  to 
base  this  selection  upon  the  producing  capacity  of  the 
dams,  we  must  look  for  some  other  basis  of  selection. 

It  is  a  generally  accepted  principle  of  heredity  that 
an  animal  which  shows  a  tendency  toward  variation 
is  one  that  is  not  likely  to  be  prepotent.  We  desire 
to  raise  calves  from  cows  that  are  not  prepotent,  in 
order  that  the  prepotent  qualities  of  the  bull  may 
have  full  scope.  Cows,  then,  that  show  tendency 
toward  variation,  particularly  toward  improvement, 
are  logically  the  ones  over  which  the  male  is  most 
likely  to  be  prepotent,  and  at  the  same  time  the  calves 
show  the  greatest  tendency  toward  improvement.  It 
is  comparatively  easy  to  determine  in  any  herd  of 
cows  those  which  show  the  greatest  tendency  toward 
variation,  and  more  particularly  those  which  show 
the  greatest  tendency  toward  improvement  when  their 
conditions  are  made  more  favorable.  We  can  then 
determine  the  cows  from  which  we  are  likely  to  get 
the  best  half-blood  heifer  calves  by  giving  the  herd 
more  and  better  feed,  and  selecting  calves  from  those 
animals  which  show  the'  greatest  improvement  under 
such  a  change  of  treatment. 

Experience  has  shown  that  where  the  principles 
stated  above  have  been  carefully  carried  out  a  very 
satisfactory  improvement  has  been  secured  in  the  first 
generation.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  an  increase 
of  fully  50  per  cent  in  the  average  production  of  half- 
blood  cows  over  their  common  mothers.  Experience 
has  also  shown  that  in  the  second  generation  the 
three -quarter -bloods  are  not  nearly  so  uniform  as 


Inbreeding  6L 

the  half-bloods,  and  frequently  show  little,  if  any, 
increase  in  average  production,  though  a  few  indi- 
viduals will  show  a  marked  improvement.  The  ques- 
tion then  comes  as  to  how  to  secure  a  greater  uni- 
formity and  a  higher  average  production  in  the  second 
generation  or  the  three -quarter -bloods. 

If  the  selection  of  the  original  pure -bred  bull  has 
been  a  wise  one,  and  if  he  was  a  young  animal  at  the 
time  of  his  purchase,  there  will  be  a  considerable 
number  of  his  half-blood  offspring  ready  to  be  bred 
while  he  is  still  in  the  zenith  of  his  powers.  Most 
breeders  hesitate  to  breed  such  an  animal  to  his  own 
offspring,  and  it  is  seldom  recommended.  But  if 
inbreeding  is  ever  likely  to  be  followed  with  useful 
results,  it  will  be  under  just  such  conditions;  and, 
in  proportion  as  both  the  bull  and  the  half-blood 
heifers  show  strong  individual  vital  powers,  the  prac- 
tice is  to  be  recommended.  In  a  majority  of  cases 
the  very  best  bull  to  breed  to  a  lot  of  high-quality, 
uniform,  half-blood  heifers  is  their  own  sire,  if  it  is 
desired  to  secure  greater  uniformity  and  greater  aver- 
age production  in  their  offspring.  The  reason  for  the 
lack  of  uniformity  in  the  three -quarter -bred  offspring 
is  the  fact  that  reversions  occur  to  the  qualities  of 
their  common  and  mixed  grandmothers.  It  will  re- 
quire, then,  even  stronger  prepotency  to  overcome  this 
tendency  to  reversion,  and  the  animal  which  is  most 
likely  to  be  prepotent  over  such  half-bloods  is  their 
own  sire. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  improved  produc- 
tion in  the  first  place  was  secured  by  improving  the 


62  Milk   and   Its   Products 

conditions  of  environment,  which,  so  far  as  the  ordi- 
nary dairy  herd  is  concerned,  means  simply  more 
food;  and  that  it  was  perpetuated  in  the  case  of  pure- 
bred animals  by  selection.  Having  obtained  improve- 
ment now  by  the  use  of  a  pure -bred  male  on  com- 
mon or  mixed  females,  it  is,  of  course,  necessary 
that  it  shall  be  maintained  by  liberal  care  and 
feeding.  A  pure -bred  animal  can  transmit  only  its 
inherited  tendencies,  and  if  these  inherited  tendencies 
are  not  backed  up  by  abundant  and  nutritious  food, 
the  improvement  secured  is  sure  to  be  lost.  Having 
now  secured  a  marked  improvement  in  two  or  three 
generations  by  the  use  of  a  pure -bred  male  on  com- 
mon pr  mixed  females,  with  intelligent  selection  and 
intelligent  inbreeding,  the  further  course  of  improve- 
ment is  the  maintenance  of  proper  conditions  of 
environment  and  careful  selection.  As  generations 
come  on,  characteristics  of  the  original  pure -bred  sire 
will  become  more  and  more  fixed  and  uniform,  rever- 
sions will  be  less  and  less  frequent,  and  the  herd  will 
be  practically  pure-brecl  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
capacity  of  individual  members  to  reproduce  their 
characteristics,  though  they  never  become  eligible  to 
registration  in  the  herd  book.  This  is  a  course  that 
has  been  successfully  practiced  in  the  improvement  of 
a  large  number  of  herds  of  dairy  animals,  and  is 
entirely  within  the  reach  of  anyone  of  ordinary  skill 
and  intelligence. 

Major  and  minor  dairy  breeds. — The  breeds  of  dairy 
cattle  have  been  developed  in  the  main  in  localities 
where,  for 'one  reason  or  another,  a  dairy  industry 


Major   and   Minor   Dairy  Breeds  63 

has  sprung  up,  and  where  the  localities  have  been 
more  or  less  isolated,  and  the  cattle  have  developed 
from  the  local  cattle  of  the  district  by  constant  selec- 
tion of  those  that  are  the  most  profitable  producers. 
In  some  cases  this  selection  has  been  going  on  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years.  While  the  domestic  ox 
is  more  or  less  variable  in  size,  in  conformation  and 
in  color,  the  number  of  breeds  of  cattle  is  not  large, 
and  they  group  themselves  into  the  dairy  and  beef 
breeds,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  each  has 
been  selected. 

At  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  there  are 
about  twenty  well-recognized  breeds,  in  about  half  of 
which  the  dairy  is  the  leading  characteristic.  Four 
breeds  maintain  a  leading  position  among  dairy  cattle; 
namely,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Holstein-Friesian  and  Ayr- 
shire. Five  other  breeds  occupy  a  minor  position,  but 
are  still  numerous  enough  to  demand  attention; 
namely,  Shorthorn,  Red  Polled,  Brown  Swiss,  Dutch 
Belted  and  Devon.  Four  breeds  are  native  of  Great 
Britain;  namely,  Ayrshire,  Shorthorn,  Red  Polled 
and  Devon.  Two,  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  are  native  of 
the  Channel  Islands.  Two,  Holstein-Friesian  and 
Dutch  Belted,  are  native  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands; and  one,  Brown  Swiss,  comes  from  Switzerland. 

The  breeds  are  easily  distinguished  one  from 
another  by  size,  conformation  and  color  markings. 
They  all  have  the  characteristic  wedge-shaped  form  of 
the  dairy  animal  distinctly  developed,  and  all  have 
noteworthy  dairy  capacity,  as  shown  by  their  large, 
symmetrical  udders. 


64 


Milk   and   Its    Products 


Fig.  2.  Jersey  cow. 


Jerseys. — Jersey  cattle,  as  the  name  indicates,  orig- 
inated upon  the  Island  of  Jersey,  which  is  the  largest 
^ _^»      one  of   the   Channel   Island 

fi  i^l^L     £rouP>    a    £rouP    °f    about 

Jf  ,-  twenty  small   islands   lying 

l/jt*jHff!^&  in    the    English     Channel, 

^1  C^"^_^B  near   the   coast   of   France, 

but  belonging,  politically, 
to  Great  Britain.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  the  cattle 
originally  upon  the.  island  came  from  the  mainland  of 
France.  For  more  than  one  hundred  years  the  people 
of  the  Island  of  Jersey  have  absolutely  prohibited 
the  importation  of  live  neat  cattle  from  any  other 
country,  and  the  blood  has  therefore  been  maintained 
pure  for  more  than  one  hundred  years.  Somewhat 
before  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  dairying 
began  to  be  an  important  farm  industry  upon  the 
island,  and  the  farmers  began  to  give  attention  to  the 
development  of  their  cattle,  both  as  to  production  and 
to  form,  and  the  develop- 
ment has  been  continuous 
ever  since. 

Jersey  cattle  are  charac- 
terized by  small  size,  spare, 
angular  forms  and  curved 
outlines,  dished  faces, 
crooked  legs,  and  often 
rather  crooked  backs.  They 
have  a  rather  delicate,  nervous  organization,  and, 
when  carefully  handled,  are  extremely  docile  and 


Fig.  3.  Jersey  bull. 


Jerseys   and    Guernseys  65 

gentle,  but  they  are  easily  disturbed  by  ill  usage,  and 
under  such  unfavorable  conditions,  the  males  particu- 
larly, often  become  ill-tempered  and  unmanageable. 
In  color,  they  are  fawn,  shaded  through  the  various 
shades  of  gray  to  black,  often  more  or  less  spotted 
with  white.  The  tips  of  the  horns,  muzzle,  tongue 
and  hoofs  are  black.  In  England  and  in  the  United 
States,  Jersey  cattle  with  no  white  markings  have 
always  been  favorites,  and  this  has  had  a  consider- 
able influence  upon  breeders  upon  the  Island  of 
Jersey,  but  there  still  remain  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  animals  more  or  less  spotted  with  white. 

Jersey  cattle  yield  moderate  amounts  of  milk  rich 
in  butter  fat,  the  percentage  of  fat  running  ordi- 
narily from  4.5  to  6  in  cows  in  full  flow  of  milk. 
The  fat  globules  are  also  large  and  highly  colored, 
giving  the  butter  a  very  attractive  appearance. 

The  first  Jerseys  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States  about  1850,  though  they  increased  slowly  until 
about  1870,  since  which  time  they  have  increased 
rapidly,  and  have  adapted  themselves  to  dairy  condi- 
tions over  the  whole  country  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  from  Maine  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 
They  are  the  most  widely  distributed  and  the  most 
numerous  of  any  of  the  dairy  breeds. 

Guernseys. — Guernsey  cattle  originated  upon  the 
Island  of  Guernsey,  another  island  of  the  Channel 
Island  group,  and  next  in  size  and  importance  to 
Jersey.  The  conditions  under  which  Guernsey  cattle 
developed  are  almost  identical  with  those  upon  the 
Island  of  Jersey,  and  the  same  regulations  with 


66 


Milk  and  Its  Products 


Fig.  4.   Guernsey  bull. 


respect   to   importations   from  outside  have  also  been 

enforced.     Guernsey   cattle   resemble  Jerseys  in  many 

respects,  particularly  as  to  amount,  quality  and  color 

of  the  milk  and  milk  fat,  and  they  undoubtedly  had 

a   common   origin   with   Jerseys    on    the   mainland    of 

France.     They  are  distinguished  from  the  Jerseys  by 

slightly  larger  size,  by  rather 

straighter    forms,    and    by 

a   distinctly   yellower   color 

of  the  skin.     In  color  they 

are     uniformly     fawn     and 

white.    Occasionally  animals 

are  seen  that  are  brindled, 

but  they  are  not   common. 

The   muzzle  and  the   hoofs 

are  flesh-  or  amber -colored, 

instead  of  black,  as  in  the 

case  of  the  Jersey. 

Another  island  of  the 
Channel  group  called  Alder- 
ney  supports  cattle.  The 
Island  of  Alderney  is  a 
part  of  the  Bailiwick  of 
Guernsey,  and  the  cattle  on 
Alderney  are  in  no  sense  distinct  from  those  on 
.Guernsey,  and  at  the  present  time  are  all  included  in 
the  same  breed. 

Holstein-Friesians. — Holstein-Friesian  cattle  or,  as 
they  are  more  commonly  called,  Holsteins,  are  natives 
of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  originated  in 
two  provinces  of  that  kingdom,  namely,  North  Hol- 


Fig.  5.  Guernsey  cow. 


Holstein -Friesians  67 

land  and  West   Friesland.     The  name  Holstein  is  an 

entire  misnomer  to  this  breed  of  cattle,  so  far  as  any 

geographical    distinction    is 

concerned.      None    of    the 

ancestors    of    the    cattle    of 

this   breed  ever  came  from 

the    Duchy    of    Schleswig- 

Holstein,  although  the  cattle 

of  these  districts,  and  some 

other     Prussian    provinces, 

Fig.  6.   Holstein-Fnesian  cow. 

are     not     greatly     different 

from  what  are  known  in  the  United  States  as  Hol- 
stein cattle.  The  proper  geographical  name  for  this 
breed  would  undoubtedly  be  Dutch.  Dutch  farmers 
have  long  been  noted  for  their  thrift,  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  dairy  products,  particularly  of  cheese, 
has  been  an  important  industry  in  North  Holland 
for  very  many  years.  The  land  is  fertile  and  emi- 
nently suited  to  the  production  of  grass,  but  it  is 

high  priced,  since  it  is  pro- 
tected from  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  sea  by  an  exten- 
sive series  of  costly  dykes 
and  embankments. 

In  order  that  the  Dutch 
farmer  may  make  dairy 
products  profitable  on  such 
high-priced  land,  he  must 

Fig.  7.  Holstein-Friesian  bull.  .      .  , 

have  a  very  efficient  animal, 

and  under  these  circumstances  the  Holstein  cow  has 
been  developed.  The  natural  conservatism  of  the 


68  Milk   and  Its   Products 

Dutch  race  has  prevented  the  importation  of  animals 
from  other  countries,  and  so  the  race  has  been  kept 
practically  pure,  some  authorities  say  for  as  much 
as  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  Dutch  cattle 
have  been  developed  very  largely  upon  grass  in  lux- 
uriant pastures  in  the  summer  time,  and  on  hay, 
supplemented  with  very  little  grain,  in  the  winter. 
This  has  resulted  in  developing  an  animal  of  large 
size,  capable  of  yielding  a  large  flow  of  milk,  but 
milk  not  very  rich  in  fat,  which  is  the  prominent 
characteristic  of  this  race  of  cattle. 

Holstein  cattle  are  large  in  size,  ranking  well  up 
with  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford  and  other  beef  breeds. 
They  are  inclined  to  have  straight  bones,  long  faces, 
straight,  sometimes  rather  long  legs,  and  straight 
backs.  Many  animals,  however,  have  a  distinct  droop 
to  the  rump  from  the  hip  to  the  root  of  the  tail, 
which  breeders  constantly  select  against. 

In  color,  Holstein  cattle  are  black  and  white,  and 
in  any  proportion,  running  from  almost  pure  white  to 
almost  pure  black,  an(i,  in  cases  where  the  colors  are 
more  equally  distributed,  the  colors  may  be  finely 
broken  up,  or  may  be  in  large  patches.  Most  Ameri- 
can breeders  prefer  an  animal  rather  more  than  half 
white,  with  the  black  and  white  colors  in  rather  large 
areas.  Peculiarities  of  coloring,  either  in  propor- 
tions or  markings,  do  not  run  very  strongly  in  fam- 
ily lines,  and  an  animal  that  is  largely  white  may, 
and  often  does,  produce  offspring  in  which  black  is 
the  predominating  color,  and  vice  versa. 

Holstein    cattle    were    introduced    into    the    United 


Ayr  shires 


69 


States  about  1860.  They  increased  very  slowly  until 
about  1880,  since  which  time  they  have  become  very 
numerous,  particularly  in  those  localities  where  the 
sale  of  milk  for  market  purposes  is  the  chief  dairy 
industry,  and  in  many  such  localities  they  are  rapidly 
coming  to  be  almost  the  only  dairy  breed  kept. 

AyrsMres. — Ayrshire  cattle,  as  the  name  implies, 
originated  in  the  county  of  Ayr  in  southwestern  Scot- 
land. Up  to  about  1800  there  was  no  particular  type 
of  cattle  in  this  locality,  but  about  this  time  dairying 
began  to  be  developed,  particularly  in  the  parish  of 
Dunlop,  and  the  more  enterprising  dairymen  began  to 
select  cows  for  dairy  production  from  the  common 
stock  of  the  country.  It  is  supposed  that  the  original 
stock  of  the  county  of  Ayr  had  a  more  or  less  mixed 
origin,  but  the  Ayrshire  breed  took  on  distinctive 
characters  as  early  as  1830,  and  since  that  time  has 
developed  into  one  of  the  chief  dairy  breeds  in  Scot- 
land, in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States. 

Ayrshire  cattle  are  of 
medium  size,  distinctly 
larger  than  the  Jersey,  and 
distinctly  smaller  than  the 
Holstein.  They  are  charac- 

-r    ^  terized  by  extremely  straight 

*  ^  |^  and   smooth    forms,    with 

round  bodies,  slim  necks 
and  legs,  and  long,  slim, 
upright  horns.  They  are 
extremely  active  in  disposition,  and  alert,  and  stylish 
in  appearance.  These  qualities  have  been  developed 


Fig.  8.   Ayrshire  cow. 


70  Milk  and  Its  Products 

as  fancy  points  by  many  Ayrshire  breeders.  Their 
activity  and  disposition  leads  them  to  be  extremely 

good  grazers,  and  they  are 
better  suited  to  sparse  and 
rough  pasture  than  any  other 
breed,  though  '  they  respond 
quite  as  well  to  generous 
treatment  with  respect  to 
abundant  food  supply.  Ayr- 
shire breeders  have  given 
much  attention  to  the  form 

and  symmetrical  shape  of  the  udder,  and  have 
selected  animals  with  large  udders,  straight  and  full 
at  the  back  and  level  on  the  floor,  extending  well 
forward  on  the  belly.  The  teats  are  cylindrical  and 
placed  far  apart,  but  in  very  many  cases  are  too  short 
to  be  convenient. 

In  color,  the  Ayrshire  is  any  combination  of  light 
red,  red,  red-brown,  or  dark  brown  with  white.  The 
dark  color  in  the  case  of  some  bulls  is  almost  black. 
Modern  Ayrshire  breeders  distinctly  prefer  those  ani- 
mals in  which  the  white  color  is  largely  predominat- 
ing, and  many  modern  Ayrshires  might  be  described 
as  white,  with  small  patches  of  the  darker  color 
scattered  over  the  body. 

Ayrshire  cattle  were  first  brought  to  America  by 
way  of  Canada  some  time  previous  to  the  middle  of 
the  ninteenth  century,  and  shortly  after  they  were 
introduced  into  the  eastern  United  States.  The  num- 
bers,, however,  remained  small,  although  there  are 
numerous  localities  in  New  York  and  New  England 


Shorthorns  71 

where  Ayrshires  have  been  constantly  kept  since 
before  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  In  those  localities, 
where  Ayrshires  have  been  kept  longest  without  impor- 
tations from  Scotland,  they  have  taken  on  a  rather 
different  type.  They  have  lost  something  of  the 
smoothness  of  form,  have  increased  somewhat  in  size, 
the  udders  have  lost  some  of  the  symmetry,  and  dark 
colors  usually  predominate.  Usually  they  have  lost 
nothing  in  productivity,  and  some  of  the  largest  pro- 
ducers of  the  breed  may  be  found  in  these  localities. 
Animals  of  this  sort  are  often  spoken  of  as  belonging 
to  the  American  type  in  contradistinction  to  those 
first  described,  which  are  commonly  known  as  of  the 
Canadian  or  Scotch  type. 

The  Ayrshire  ordinarily  produces  milk  and  butter 
in  relatively  large  amounts  for  the  amount  of  food 
consumed,  but,  considering  the  cow  as  an  individual, 
the  Ayrshire  does  not  yield  so  much  milk  as  the  Hoi- 
stein,  and  the  milk  is  not  so  rich  as  that  of  the  Jersey 
or  Guernsey.  Consequently  they  have  to  compete 
with  all  the  other  breeds,  and  they  remain  in  point 
of  numbers  distinctly  below  the  other  three  breeds  in 
nearly  all  dairy  localities. 

Shorthorns.  —  While  the  Shorthorn  ranks  among 
the  leading  beef  breeds,  it  should  also  be  considered 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  dairy.  The  original  Short- 
horn cow  was  a  notable  milk  producer,  and  some  of 
the  earlier  breeders  gave  attention  to  their  develop- 
ment along  this  line,  but  the  demand  for  beef  over- 
shadowed the  dairy,  and  many  tribes  and  families  of 
Shorthorns  have  been  bred  so  strongly  for  beef  for 


72  Milk   and   Its   Products 

so  long  a  time   that   their   dairy  capacity   has   almost 

completely   disappeared.      On   the  other   hand,    a   few 

breeders     have    maintained 

the  milking  qualities  of  their 

herds,  and  there  are  perhaps 

a    dozen    to   twenty   herds, 

scattered   in   various    parts 

of    the    country,    that    are 

notable  for  dairy  qualities, 

and  are  known  as  milking 

Shorthorns.      In    England, 

also,  there  has  been  a  recent          Fig- 10-  Dairy  Shortho™ cow 

renewal  of  interest  in  milking  Shorthorns,  and  there 

are   several   notable   herds   in   that  country.     Most   of 

the  Shorthorns  that  show  good  milking  qualities  trace 

their  descent  to  families  that   originated   in   the   herd 

of  Thomas  Bates,  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  famous 

of  Shorthorn  breeders. 

The  Shorthorn  originated  in  the  valley  of  the 
river  Tees,  in  the  counties  of  Durham,  Northumber- 
land and  Yorkshire,  in  northeastern  England.  They 
rank  as  the  largest  of  the  breeds  of  cattle.  They  have 
massive  rectangular  forms,  short  legs,  short  necks, 
and  short,  usually  incurving  horns.  In  color,  they 
are  usually  spoken  of  as  the  red,  white  and  roan. 
Their  normal  colors  are  red  or  white,  or  any  combina- 
tion of  these  colors,  either  in  the  intimate  mixture 
known  as  roan,  or  spotted  red  and  white.  The  red 
should  be  a  clear  red-brown,  not  shading  to  yellow  on 
the  one  hand,  nor  to  black  on  the  other.  At  one 
time  the  clear  red  animals  were  much  more  sought 


Red   Polled   and    Brown    Swiss  73 

after  in  the  United  States.  At  the  present  time  there 
is  no  particular  preference  to  colors  or  mixtures  of 
colors. 

The  milk  of  Shorthorn  cattle  is  of  moderate  rich- 
ness in  quality,  and  in  quantity  must  rank  below  the 
Holsteins  and  Ayrshires. 

Red  Polled. — Red  Polled  cattle,  as  their  name  indi- 
cates, are  a  clear  red  hornless  breed.  They  originated 
in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  in  eastern 
England,  where  they  have  been  bred  with  considerable 
care  for  from  fifty  to  seventy -five  years.  They  are 
of  medium  to  large  size,  ranking  just  below  the  Short- 
horns, often  have  well -developed  wedge-shaped  forms, 
although  many  individuals  approach  too  nearly  to 
the  beef  type  to  be  called  first-class  dairy  animals. 
They  are  quiet  in  disposition,  and  their  lack  of  horns 
makes  them  a  favorite  with  some.  In  amount  and 
quality  of  milk  they  rank  with  the  better  type  of  milk- 
ing Shorthorns.  There  have  been  a  few  notable 
producers  among  them,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  cannot 
compete  in  amount  of  product  with  the  leading  dairy 
breeds,  and  are  found  in  only  small  numbers  in  the 
United  States. 

Brown  Swiss. — Brown  Swiss  cattle  are  native  of 
the  forest -can  tons  of  Switzerland,  notably  the  canton 
of  Schwyz,  where  dairying  has  been  extensively  devel- 
oped upon  the  mountain  pastures.  They  are  a  large 
breed,  with  very  heavy,  coarse  bones,  thick  hides  and 
large  extremities.  They  are  quiet  in  disposition.  In 
color,  they  are  a  uniform  grayish  brown,  with  a  ring 
of  lighter  hairs  about  the  muzzle,  and  shading  to 


74  Milk   and   Its   Products 

black  on  the  legs  and  tail.  Their  bodies  are  rather 
heavy  and  somewhat  beefy,  though  occasional  animals 
show  the  distinctive  dairy  form.  As  a  rule,  they  are 
not  large  producers,  although  occasional  individuals 
are  found  that  rank  well  up  with  individuals  of  the 
leading  dairy  breeds.  There  are  comparatively  few 
herds  in  this  country.  Their  owners,  however,  are 
strong  partizans  of  the  breed,  and  claim  for  them  the 
advantages  of  docility,  hardiness  and  constitutional 
vigor. 

Dutch  Belted. — Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  a  race 
resembling  the  Holsteins,  and  probably  closely  related 
to  them.  They  are  distinctly  smaller  in  size,  and  the 
black  and  white  colors  are  segregated  in  black  extremi- 
ties, and  a  broad  white  band  about  the  middle.  They 
are  found  in  Holland,  usually  on  large  private  estates, 
and  are  there  known  as  Lakenvelders.  They  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States  with  the  early  Dutch 
settlers  about  New  York,  and  have  shown  such  power 
of  transmitting  their  external  characteristics  that  they 
maintained  themselves  f  practically  pure,  with  no  herd 
book  organization,  until  the  latter  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  In  general  characteristics  they  re- 
semble the  Holsteins,  but  their  smaller  size  and 
smaller  production  do  not  enable  them  to  compete 
with  the  more  important  breeds.  They  are  kept  in 
small  numbers  by  those  who  fancy  their  peculiar 
markings  of  form. 

Devons. — Devon  cattle,  as  the  name  indicates,  orig- 
inated in  the  county  of  Devon  in  southwestern  Eng- 
land. They  are  also  found  to  some  extent  in  Corn- 


Devons  75 

wall,  Somersetshire  and  Dorsetshire.  They  have  been 
developed  from  the  native  cattle  of  the  country,  along 
both  beef  and  dairy  lines.  They  are  medium  to  small 
in  size,  have  very  neat,  symmetrical,  smooth,  round 
forms,  in  which  respect  they  somewhat  resemble  the 
Ayrshire.  They  are  also  sprightly  and  active  in  dis- 
position, and  unusually  intelligent.  Their  horns  are 
long,  ivory-white,  slender  and  upright.  They  give  a 
moderate  quantity  of  fairly  rich  milk.  Undoubtedly 
Devons,  or  cattle  similar  to  them,  were  among  the 
first  imported  into  the  United  States  from  England 
by  the  early  colonists.  As  pure-breds  they  have  ex- 
isted for  more  than  one  hundred  years,  but  never  in 
very  large  numbers.  Because  of  their  docility  and 
capability  for  training,  they  have  always  been  favor- 
ites in  localities  where  oxen  are  used  for  labor.  At 
the  present  time,  as  pure -bred  animals,  there  are 
very  few  remaining. 

From  time  to  time  other  breeds  have  been  repre- 
sented in  this  country,  but  they  never  have  been 
numerous  enough  to  form  any  important  part  of  dairy 
stock.  Among  such  breeds  may  be  mentioned  the 
Normandy,  the  Simmenthal,  the  French  Canadian, 
and  the  Kerry. 

The  Normandies  are  a  medium -sized,  parti -colored 
breed  from  Northern  France.  Simmenthal  coming 
from  the  valley  of  the  Simme,  in  Switzerland,  resemble 
very  closely  the  Brown  Swiss  in  form  and  character, 
They  are  fawn  and  white  in  color.  The  French  Can- 
adian has  been  bred  in  the  French  provinces  of  Can- 
ada, since  the  time  of  the  first  settlers,  from  animals 


76  Milk   and   Its   Products 

brought  from  France  at  that  time.  They  are  a  hardy, 
active  race  and  are  good  and  profitable  producers. 
They  give  promise  of  future  development.  The  Kerry 
is  the  diminutive  cow  of  the  Irish  peasant  and  is 
more  curious  than  useful  in  this  country. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    TESTING   OF  MILK 

MILK  is  so  variable  in  composition,  and  so  ea- 
sily adulterated,  that  it  frequently  becomes  of  great 
importance  to  be  able  to  ascertain  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  accuracy  the  composition  of  any  given 
sample, 

HISTORY    OF     MILK    TESTS 

Gravimetric  analysis. — The  most  accurate  way  to 
determine  the  composition  of  milk  is  by  means  of  an 
exact  chemical  analysis.  The  constituents  of  milk 
which  it  is  most  frequently  necessary  to  determine 
are  the  total  solids  and  fat.  The  total  solids  are 
determined  by  drying  an  accurately  weighed  portion 
of  the  milk  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water 
until  it  no  longer  loses  weight.  The  residue  is  the 
total  solids,  and  its  weight,  divided  by  the  weight 
of  the  original  amount  taken,  will  give  the  percent- 
age of  total  solids.  The  fats  may  then  be  deter- 
mined by  extracting  the  residue  with  anhydrous 
ether  until  nothing  more  is  dissolved,  and  then 
evaporating  the  ether  and  weighing  the  resulting 
fat  directly.  Various  forms  of  apparatus  for  mak- 
ing these  determinations  have  been  devised  by  vari- 

(77) 


78  Milk   and   Its   Products 

ous  chemists,  a  considerable  number  of  which  give 
very  accurate  results.  Chief  among  these  methods 
for  determining  fat  and  total  solids  are  the  Babcock 
asbestos  method  and  the  Adams  paper- coil  method. 
In  order  that  these  determinations  may  be  made 
with  accuracy,  balances  of  extreme  delicacy,  and 
apparatus  more  or  less  complicated  and  requiring 
considerable  skill  in  its  manipulation,  are  necessary, 
so  that  for  ordinary  commercial  purposes  they  are 
practically  out  of  reach. 

History  of  milk  tests. — Although  consumers  of 
milk  had  felt  for  a  long  time  the  necessity  of 
some  means  of  protection  against  dishonest  dealers, 
it  was  not  until  the  development  of  the  factory  sys- 
tem of  manufacturing  cheese  (1850)  and  butter 
(1870)  that  some  means  of  easily  determining  the 
composition  of  milk,  particularly  as  to  fat  content, 
became  important  to  both  producers  and  manufac- 
turers. From  that  time  on  various  methods  have 
been  devised,  from  the  simple  expedient  of  raising 
the  cream  in  a  small  sample  of  milk  in  a  graduated 
glass  to  apparatuses  almost  as  complicated  and 
difficult  of  manipulation  as  the  gravimetric  methods 
themselves. 

Cream,  gauges. — The  simplest  and  one  of  the 
earliest  methods  used  to  determine  the  quality  of 
'milk  is  to  set  a  small  portion  of  it  under  such  con- 
ditions that  the  cream  would  be  thoroughly  thrown 
to  the  surface  and  .  easily  measured.  These  were 
known  as  cream  glasses,  cream  gauges,  or  cream  - 
ometers,  and  to  a  certain  extent  served  a  useful  pur- 


Lactometers  79 

pose  ;  but  it  was  soon  found  that  the  percentage  of 
cream  depends  not  so  much  upon  the  amount  of  fat 
present  in  the  milk  as  upon  the  size  of  the  globules 
and  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  brought 
to  the  surface,  and  that  the  percentage  of  cream 
does  not  necessarily  bear  a  constant  relation  to  the 
percentage  of  fat. 

Specific  gravity.— The  determination  of  the  spe- 
cific gravity  was  next  brought  into  use  as  a  means 
of  determining  the  quality  of  milk.  Inasmuch  as 
milk  is  slightly  heavier  than  water,  and  as  water  is 
the  most  common  adulterant  of  milk,  any  addition 
of  water  to  it  would  serve  to  lessen  its  specific 
gravity,  and  would  easily  be  detected  by  a  determi- 
nation of  the  specific  gravity.  To  determine  the 
specific  gravity  of  milk,  various  forms  of  specific 
gravity  hydrometers,  known  as'  lactometers,  have 
been  devised.  They  were  formerly  very  much  more 
depended  upon  as  a  test  of  the  quality  of  milk  than 
at  present,  and  though  now  we  have  learned  that 
under  certain  conditions  a  simple  specific  gravity 
test  may  not  only  be  inaccurate,  but  entirely  mis- 
leading, still  they  are  "of  considerable  use  for  cer- 
tain purposes  and  in  connection  with  certain  other 
instruments. 

Lactometers. — In  devising  the  lactometer,  it  was  as- 
sumed that  1.029  was  as  low  as  the  specific  gravity  of 
any  unadulterated  milk  would  ever  fall ;  therefore  a 
hydrometer  was  devised,  the  scale  of  which  was  gradu- 
ated from  0  to  120,  the  0  marking  the  point  of  pure 
water,  or  a  specific  gravity  of  1.000,  and  100  cor-. 


80 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


responding  to  the  assumed  least  specific  gravity  of 
milk,  or  1.029. 
If,  then,  in  any 
given  sample  of 
milk  the  lactom- 
eter fell  to  90, 
it  would  indicate 
the  presence  of  10 
per  cent  of  water  ; 
if  it  fell  to  75,  of 
25  per  cent  of 
water,  etc.  This 
form  of  lactometer 
is  now  known  as 
the  common,  or- 
dinary or  Board 
of  Health  lactom^ 
eter.  A  second 
form  of  lactometer 
in  common  use 
was  devised  by 
Quevenne,  and 
bears  his  name. 
The  scale  of  this 
hydrometer  is  or- 
dinarily graduated 
from  15  to  40,  the 
29  being  coinci- 
dent with  100  up-  A  B 

On  the  Ordinary  laC-  Pig.  n.  comparison  of  graduation  on  lactometer 
anrl  -until  stems  :  A,  hydrometer  •  JB,  ordinary  lactometer; 
ana  Wltn  C,  Quevenne  lactometer. 


1.000 

0 

10- 

1.006- 

20- 

30- 

1.010- 

40- 

1= 

1.015 

50- 
60- 

7 

,5- 

- 

1.020- 

- 

70- 

20 

- 

80- 

- 

1.025- 

- 

25- 

— 

90- 

i 

— 

- 

100 

- 

— 

1.030 

- 

30- 

f 

- 

110- 

_ 

- 

1.035- 

120- 

35 
40- 

Relation  of  Quevenne  to  Ordinary  Lactometer      81 

a  specific  gravity  of  1.029  upon  the  ordinary  hy- 
drometer. The  accompanying  sketch  (see  opposite 
page)  shows  the  relative  values  of  the  degrees  upon 
the  ordinary  hydrometer,  the  ordinary  lactometer  and 
the  Quevenne  lactometer.  With  the  Quevenne  lac- 
tometer the  specific  gravity  of  the  milk  can  be  at 
once  read,  a  degree  upon  this  scale  being  equivalent 
to  one  degree  of  specific  gravity.  Since  100  degrees 
upon  the  ordinary  lactometer  indicate  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.029,  the  specific  gravity  of  any  ordinary  lactometer 
reading  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  reading  by 
.29,  dividing  by  1,000  and  adding  1.  Twenty-nine  Que- 
venne degrees  are  also  equivalent  to  100  ordinary  de- 
grees, so  that  Quevenne  readings  may  be  changed  to  the 
ordinary  readings  by  dividing  by  .29,  and  ordinary 
readings  may  be  changed  to  Quevenne  readings  by 
multiplying  by  .29. 

The  relative  density  of  milk  varies  with  its  tem- 
perature, so  that  a  hydrometer  is  only  correct  at  one 
given  temperature.  Most  hydrometers  are  graduated 
for  a  temperature  of  60°  F.,  and  the  better  forms 
have  an  attached  thermometer ;  so  that  if  the  milk 
to  be  tested  varies  from  this  in  either  direction  a  cor- 
rection must  be  made.  As  the  density  increases  with 
a  reduction  of  temperature  and  decreases  with  a  rise 
of  temperature,  the  correction  must  be  subtracted  in 
going  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  and  added  in  going  from 
a  higher  to  a  lower  temperature.  The  amount  of  such 
correction  for  the  Quevenne  lactometer  is  .1  of  a  lac- 
tometer degree  for  each  degree  of  temperature,  and  for 
the  ordinary  lactometer  one  lactometer  degree  for  each  3 


82  Milk   and   Its   Products 

degrees  of  temperature.  In  no  event  should  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  to  be  tested  be  more  than  10 
degrees  warmer  or  colder  than  the  standard,  and  it  is 
much  better  if  the  temperature  does  not  vary  from 
the  standard  more  than  5  degrees  in  either  direction. 
The  solids  in  milk  are  not  all  of  the  same 
specific  gravity  ;  some  are  heavier  and  some  lighter 
than  water.  The  fats  are  lighter,  the  other  solids 
are  all  heavier.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  milk, 
then,  depends  not  only  upon  the  amount  of  solids 
present  in  the  milk,  but  also  upon  their  relative 
proportions.  The  specific  gravity  of  milk  may  be 
affected  by  the  addition  of  any  substance  to  it  or 
the  abstraction  of  any  of  its  constituents.  Since 
some  of  the  constituents  of  milk  are  lighter  than 
water,  their  abstraction  in  whole  or  in  part  would  be 
followed  by  an  increase  in  density.  It  will  be 
readily  seen,  then,  that  if  a  part  of  the  fats  are  re- 
moved, the  specific  gravity  of  the  skimmed  or  partly 
skimmed  milk  will  be  heavier  than  normal,  and  the 
addition  of  a  certain  amount  of  water  or  other  sub- 
stance lighter  than  'the  milk  would  only  serve  to 
bring  the  specific  gravity  back  to  the  normal  point. 
In  this  way,  if  it  is  done  skilfully,  water  may  be 
added  to  milk,  and  cream  abstracted  from  it,  with- 
out affecting  the  specific  gravity  as  revealed  by  the 
lactometer,  and  a  very  inferior  sample  of  milk  might 
pass  as  perfectly  normal  if  the  lactometer  alone 
were  depended  upon  for  its  detection.  Mainly  for 
this  reason  the  lactometer  has  been  superseded  by 
other  and  more  accurate  instruments. 


Operation  of  Test    Churns  S3 

Churn   tests. — The   first   butter   factories  or  cream- 
eries   were    managed    upon    what    is    known    as    the 
cream -gathering    system  :     that     is,     the     cream    was 
raised   and    skimmed    upon    the    farm,    and    it    alone 
taken   to    the   factory.       It   was   soon   found   that  the 
cream   varied   considerably   in   the    percentage    of    fat 
that   it   contained,    and,    moreover,    that    a    consider- 
able    amount     of     milk     could     be     mixed     with    the 
cream    without    being    detected    by    ordinary   means. 
In   other   words,    the    managers    of    factories    learned 
that    cream    as    it    came    to    them    was    e"ven    more 
variable   in   its   percentage   of   fat    than    whole    milk. 
In   all   of   the   earlier  factories    the    cream    was    paid 
for   simply   by   measure,    and   it   became   necessary   to 
devise   some   means   of   making   an   equitable   division 
among   the   different    patrons,    and    of   protecting   the 
factory   from   loss.       To    do   this,    what    was    known 
as    test     churns    were    devised.        At    the     time     of 
gathering    the    cream,   a    small    sample     ( a    pint    or 
quart )  of    each   patron's  cream  was   taken   in   a  sep- 
arate    vessel.       These    were     taken     to     the     factory 
and    churned   separately    in   small    tin    cans,  and   the 
butter   made   up    from    each.       The    butter -producing 
power   of   the    single    pint   or   quart   was    taken   as    a 
measure   of   the   butter   value    of   the    whole    amount 
of   that   patron's    cream,    and   the  proceeds   were    ap- 
portioned  accordingly.       This  method  was  much  more 
]ust    than   a    simple    measure    of    the     cream,  but   it 
was   very    cumbersome.       It   required  delicate   manip- 
ulation   in    order    to   make   all   of   the    little    pats    of 
butter   of   the   same   water    content,     and    the    small 


84  Milk  and   Its    Products 

amounts  of  butter  so  made  were  of  inferior  com- 
mercial quality,  could  not  be  mixed  with  the  whole 
mass  of  butter,  and  entailed  a  considerable  loss 
upon  the  creamery. 

The  oil -test  churn  was  an  outgrowth  of  this 
method,  intended  to  remedy  its  defects,  and  was  in 
a  great  measure  successful.  In  operating  the  oil -test 
churn,  the  individual  samples  taken  from  each  patron 
were  very  much  smaller,  and  were  taken  in  small 
glass  tubes.  These  tubes  were  put  in  a  frame  and 
agitated  until  the  fat  was  drawn  together  in  a  solid 
mass  ;  the  tubes  were  then  immersed  in  water  suf- 
ficiently warmed  to  melt  the  fat,  and  when  so 
melted  the  fat  would  float  upon  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  in  the  tube.  The  tubes  were  allowed  to 
become  cool,  were  then  a  second  time  agitated  to 
churn  any  particles  of  fat  that  had  escaped  the 
first  churning,  and  the  fat  remelted ;  it  then  ap- 
.peared  in  the  form  of  a  clear  layer  of  liquid  upon 
the  top  of  the  contents  of  the  tube,  and  could  be 
readily  measured.  The  proportion  of  melted  fat 
so  obtained  was  taken'  as  a  measure  of  the  butter 
value  of  the  cream  of  which  it  was  a  sample. 
This  test  was  generally  used  in  cream -gat  her  ing 
factories,  and  was  a  very  fair  measure  of  the 
butter  value  of  the  cream.  There  was  always  a 
portion  of  the  fat  remaining  unchurned,  but  in 
cream  it  was  a  small  percentage.  In  milk,  how- 
ever, it  was  a  much  larger  proportion,  and  the 
oil -test  churn  was  never  successfully  used  for  de- 
termining fat  in  milk. 


Lactobutyrometer  and   Pioscope  85 

Inventions  for  testing  milk. — Several  instruments 
of  European  invention  have  been  described  for  the 
quick  determination  of  the  fat  in  milk.  Some  of 
them  make  volumetric  determinations  of  the  fat  or 
cream  ;  others  depend  simply  upon  the  opacity  of 
the  milk.  One  or  two  are  in  common  use  in 
Germany  and  Denmark,  but,  though  most  of  them 
have  been  introduced  in  the  United  States,  none 
have  come  into  general  use.  The  more  importaut 
of  these  are  the  following : 

Marchand' s  lactobutyrometer. — This  is  an  instru- 
ment for  quickly  determining,  volumetrically,  the 
fat  in  milk.  A  measured  sample  of  milk  is  intro- 
duced into  a  long  •  glass  tube  graduated  at  the 
upper  end.  A  certain  amount  of  acetic  acid  is 
added  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk,  after 
which  ether  is  added  to  dissolve  the  fat,  and  with 
the  aid  of  a  small  amount  of  heat  the  fat  is  col- 
lected into  the  upper  graduated  portion  of  the  tube 
and  read  off  volumetrically.  The  lactobutyrometer 
was  introduced  about  1877,  and  was  used  with 
more  or  less  success  for  a  time.  In  certain  sam- 
ples of  milk  it  was  found  to  be  difficult  to  get  a 
clear  separation  of  the  fat,  and  in  certain  other 
samples,  notably  the  milk  produced  from  various 
foods,  it  was  found  that  the  results  could  not  be 
relied  upon. 

Heeren's  pioscope. — This  is  a  simple  little  instru- 
ment designed  to  test  the  quality  of  milk  by 
means  of  its  opacity.  It  consists  of  a  hard  rubber 
disc,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  small  depression, 


86  Milk   and   Its   Products 

and  the  surrounding  circle  painted  in  segments  of 
varying  shades  to  represent  cream,  very  rich  milk, 
normal  milk,  poor  milk,  etc.  A  drop  of  the  milk 
to  be  tested  is  placed  in  the  central  depression 
and  covered  with  a  glass  plate,  so  that  a  layer  of 
uniform  thickness  is  always  obtained.  The  opacity 
of  this  drop  of  milk  upon  the  black  background 
of  rubber  is  then  compared  with  a  corresponding 
segment  of  the  circle.  In  so  far  as  the  fat 
measures  the  opacity  of  the  milk,  this  is  a  fairly 
reliable  test ;  and,  used  in  connection  with  a  specific 
gravity  lactometer,  a  person  with  some  experience 
can  readily  detect  suspected  samples  of  milk,  although, 
of  course,  it  is  not  possible  to  estimate  very  closely 
the  amount  of  adulteration  or  the  quality  of  the 
milk.  The  pioscope  has  been  used  very  generally 
and  successfully  by  milk  inspectors  and  those  hav- 
ing the  control  of  city  milk  supply. 

Feser's  lactoscope  is  another  instrument  designed 
to  determine  the  quality  of  milk  by  opacity.  It 
consists  of  a  glass  cylinder,  in  the  center  of  which 
is  fixed  a  white  rod  graduated  with  black  lines. 
A  certain  amount  of  milk  is  put  into  the  cylinder, 
and  by  its  opacity  renders  the  black  lines  upon 
the  central  standard  invisible.  Water  is  then  added 
to  the  milk  in  measured  quantity  until  the  black 
lines  can  be  seen,  the  amount  of  water  so  added 
indicating  the  quality  of  the  milk.  This  instru- 
ment is  more  delicate  than  the  pioscope,  but  it  can 
not  be  so  quickly  and  readily  used.  The  results 
it  gives  are  of  very  much  the  same  nature  and 


Various  European   Tests  87 

value  as  those  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  pioscope, 
consequently  it  has  never  been  used  to  any  great 
extent. 

SoxhleVs  method. — In  testing  milk  by  this  method, 
the  fat  in  a  measured  quantity  of  milk  is  dissolved 
in  ether,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  ether  solution 
determined,  and  from  this  the  percentage  of  fat  is 
calculated.  The  greater  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
ether  solution  the  greater  the  percentage  of  fat, 
and  since  the  difference  in  the  specific  gravity  of 
fat  and  ether  is  considerable,  the  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  fat  will  perceptibly  affect  the  specific 
gravity,  so  that  the  determination  is,  a  very  delicate 
one.  The  determination  is  made  in  a  specially  de- 
vised apparatus  known  as  Soxhlet's  Aerometer.  It 
has  been  widely  adopted  in  Germany,  but  not  at  all 
in  the  United  States  outside  of  chemical  labora- 
tories. 

DeLaval  lactocrite. — This  is  a  machine  devised  by 
the  inventor  of  the  centrifugal  separator  to  esti- 
mate the  fat  in  milk  volume trically.  The  sample 
to  be  tested  is  put  in  a  glass  tube  with  an  equal 
amount  of  concentrated  acetic  acid  containing  5  per 
cent  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  mixture 
heated  for  a  few  minutes,  after  which  it  is  whirled 
in  a  centrifugal  machine  until  the  fat  is  brought  to 
the  center.  It  is  then  read  off  volumetrically.  The 
lactocrite  gives  a  very  close  determination  of  the 
fat  in  milk,  but  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  separator 
frame  in  which  to  whirl  the  apparatus,  which  makes 
it  somewhat  expensive. 


88  Milk   and  Its   Products 

Fjord's  control  apparatus. — This  apparatus,  in- 
vented by  the  late  Professor  Fjord,  of  Denmark, 
estimates  the  fat  by  measuring  the  solidified  cream. 
Glass  tubes  similar  to  those  used  in  the  oil -test 
churn  are  secured  in  a  frame  and  a  measured  quan- 
tity of  milk  put  in  each.  The  frame  holding  the 
bottles  is  then  whirled  in  a  centrifugal  separator 
frame  till  the  cream  is  completely  separated  and 
brought  together  in  a  compact  mass.  This  re- 
quires about  forty -five  minutes.  The  solid  mass 
of  cream  is  then  measured  with  a  scale  and  the 
fat  estimated  from  it  by  means  of  a  table  con- 
structed by  the  inventor.  This  apparatus  is  in 
.very  common  use  in  Denmark,  but  has  never  been 
introduced  into  this  country. 

Development  of  milk  tests  in  the  United  States. — Up 
to  the  year  1888,  there  had  been  no  apparatus  devised 
which  would  determine  the  fat  in  milk  accurately, 
easily,  cheaply  and  quickly.  None  of  the  methods 
described  could  in  any  sense  supply  the  place  of  the 
gravimetric  analysis,  even  for  commercial  purposes. 
The  oil -test  churn  came  the  nearest  to  it,  but  that 
was  of  no  use  for  milk,  and  at  this  time  the  separa- 
tor creamery  was  beginning  to  supplant  the  gathered- 
cream  factory,  and  the  demand  was  constantly 
stronger  for  a  means  of  determining  the  fat  in  milk. 
This  year  also  marked  the  establishment  of  the  na- 
tional grant  to  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  in 
each  of  the  states,  and  one  of  the  first  problems  at- 
tacked by  the  chemists  of  these  stations  was  to  de- 
vise a  quick  method  for  the  determination  of  fat  in 


American    Tests  89 

milk.  In  the  next  two  years  no  less  than  seven  dis 
tinct  methods  were  devised  by  chemists  of  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Stations  for  this  purpose.  All  of 
them  were  much  better  than  any  that  had  hitherto 
been  known,  but  one  was  so  much  in  advance  of 
any  of  the  others  that  now  it  is  practically  the  only 
method  used  for  the  quick  determination  of  fat  in 
milk.  This  is  the  method  devised  by  Dr.  S.  M.  Bab- 
cock,  known  as  the  Babcock  test,  and  first  published 
in  July,  1890.  The  various  tests,  in  the  order  of 
their  publication,  were  as  follows  : 

Short's  method. — This  method  was  invented  by 
F.  G.  Short,  at  that  time  chemist  of  the  Wisconsin 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  ana  was  first  pub- 
lished in  Bulletin  No.  16  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  for  July,  1888.  In  brief, 
the  method  consisted  in  converting  the  fat  in  the 
milk  into  a  soap  by  means  of  an  alkali,  and  then  dis- 
solving the  soap  by  an  acid,  setting  free  the  fat. 
The  process  was  rendered  complete  by  boiling  for 
several  hours.  The  determination  was  made  with  a 
measured  quantity  of  milk  in  a  glass  test  bottle  with 
a  narrow  graduated  neck,  into  which  the  fat  was 
raised  at  the  end  of  the  process  and  read  off  volu- 
metrically.  Considerably  difficulty  was  often  ex- 
perienced in  getting  a  clear  separation  of  the  fat 
from  the  contents  of  the  tube.  The  long  period  of 
boiling  was  also  an  important  drawback  to  the 
method. 

The  method  of  Failyer  and  Willard. — This  method 
was  devised  by  Professors  Failyer  and  Willard,  of 


90  Milk   and  Its   Products 

the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and 
was  published  in  the  report  of  that  station  for  1888. 
In  it  the  solids  of  milk  were  destroyed  by  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  the  fat  partially  separated  by  means 
of  heat.  The  fat  was  then  dissolved  in  gasoline,  and, 
after  evaporation  of  the  gasoline,  was  measured  in 
a  graduated  portion  of  the  tube  in  which  the  opera- 
tion was  performed.  It  gave  a  clearer  reading  of 
the  fat  than  Short's  method,  but  required  more  deli- 
cate manipulation,  particularly  in  heating  the  acid 
and  milk  together  and  in  evaporating  the  gasoline. 
The  time  required  was  considerably  less  than  with 
Short's  method. 

Parsons7  method. — This  method  was  devised  by 
Professor  C.  L.  Parsons,  of  the  New  Hampshire  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station,  and  published  in  the 
report  of  that  station  for  1888.  This  method  made 
use  of  caustic  soap  and  a  solution  of  soap  and  alcohol 
to  destroy  the  milk  solids,  after  which  the  fat  was 
dissolved  in  gasoline.  A  measured  quantity  of  the 
gasoline  solution  of  fat  was  then  taken,  the  gaso- 
line evaporated  from  it  and  the  fat  carefully  dried. 
The  free  fat  was  then  measured  in  a  scale,  and  by 
means  of  a  calculation,  the  percentage  of  fat  deter- 
mined. This  method  gave  very  good  results  in  the 
hands  of  several  different  operators.  It,  perhaps, 
required  a  little  more  delicate  manipulation  than 
some  of  the  others,  and  it  was  considerably  more 
complicated  than  Short's  method. 

The  Iowa  Station  test. — This  test  was  invented  by 
Professor  George  E.  Patrick,  the  chemist  of  the  Iowa 


Babcock   Test  91 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and  published  in 
Bulletin  No.  8,  February,  1890,  of  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station.  In  this  test  the  solids  of  the  milk 
were  destroyed  by  a  mixture  of  acetic,  sulphuric  and 
hydrochloric  acids,  and  the  fat  brought  to  the  sur- 
face by  boiling.  The  test  was  made  in  a  flask  with 
a  narrow  graduated  neck.  A  measured  quantity  of 
milk  was  put  in  the  flask,  a  sufficient  amount  of 
the  acids  added,  and  the  whole  boiled  for  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes.  The  Iowa  Station  test  was  a  great 
improvement  upon  any  that  preceded  it  in  point  of 
simplicity  accuracy  and  length  of  time  required. 

Cochran7  s  method. — This  method  was  invented  by 
C.  B.  Cochran,  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Board  of 
Health,  and  published  in  the  Journal  of  Analytical 
Chemistry,  Vol.  III.,  page  381.  In  this  method 
the  solids  of  the  milk  other  than  the  fat  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  use  of  a  mixture  of  acetic  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  aided  by  boiling.  When  the  milk 
solids  were  thus  completely  disintegrated,  the  fat  was 
brought  to  the  surface  by  the  aid  o£  ether,  and  then 
the  whole  mass  further  boiled  until  the  ether  was  all 
evaporated.  The  clear  melted  fat  was  then  meas- 
ured by  transferring  it  to  a  vessel  with  a  gradu- 
ated neck.  The  Cochran  method  was  simple  in 
details,  but  required  rather  delicate  manipulation  in 
transferring  the  melted  fat  from  one  vessel  to  an- 
other. It,  however,  gave  very  good  results  in  a 
comparatively  short  time. 

The  Babcock  test. — This  test  was  invented  by 
Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  chemist  of  the  Wisconsin  Agri- 


92  Milk   and   Its    Products 

cultural  Experiment  Station,  and  published  in  Bul- 
letin No.  24,  July,  1890.  In  point  of  simplicity, 
accuracy,  ease  of  manipulation  and  time  required, 
this  test  is  so  much  better  than  any  that  have  pre- 
ceded or  followed  it  that  it  is  now  practically  the 
only  one  in  use.  To  destroy  the  solids  other  than 
the  fat,  Dr.  Babcock  makes  use  of  a  single  rea- 
gent, commercial  sulphuric  acid,  of  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.82,  and  to  separate  the  fat  from  the  remain- 
ing contents  of  the  test  bottle  centrifugal  force  is 
used,  hot  water  being  added  to  bring  the  contents 
of  the  flask  up  to  the  graduated  part.  The  test  is 
made  in  a  small  flask  with  a  narrow  graduated  neck. 

The  Beimling  test. — This  method  of  testing  milk 
was  devised  by  Messrs.  Leffman  and  Beam,  and  is 
sometimes  known  under  their  name,  though  the  ap- 
paratus was  patented  by  H.  F.  Beimling,  and  intro- 
duced under  his  name.  The  Beimling  test  was  in- 
troduced in  the  year  1890,  and  was  essentially  like 
the  Babcock  test,  the  exception  being  that  instead 
of  a  single  reagent  two  were  used,  one  ordinary 
commercial  sulphuric  acid,  as  in  the  Babcock  test, 
and  the  other  a  mixture  of  ainyl  alcohol  and  com- 
mercial hydrochloric  acid.  Largely  because  of  the 
greater  inconvenience  of  using  two  reagents,  the 
Beimling  test  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

Tests  introduced  since  the  Babcock  test. — Two  or 
three  tests  differing  but  slightly  from  the  Babcock 
have  been  introduced  since.  One  of  these  is  known 
as  Gerber's  method,  the  invention  of  a  German 
chemist.  The  form  of  the  testing  bottles  differs 


Babcock    Test 


93 


somewhat  from  that  used  by  Dr.  Babcock ;  less 
whirling  is  required,  and  the  same  reagents  are 
used  as  in  the  case  of  the  Beimling.  The  DeLaval 


Fig.  12.    Hand  centrifugal  for  Babcock  test. 

Separator  Company  has  also  introduced  an  appara- 
tus for  testing  milk  which  is  known  as  the  butyrom- 
eter.  In  this  test  a  single  reagent,  sulphuric  acid, 
is  used  to  set  free  the  fat.  The  form  of  the  ap- 


94  Milk   and   Its  Products 

paratus  is  different  from  the  Babcock  test,  a  much 
higher  speed  of  whirling  is  used,  a  smaller  sample 
of  milk  is  taken,  and  the  fat  is  read  in  a  solid 
instead  of  a  liquid  form. 

DETAILS    OF   THE   BABCOCK    TEST 

The  apparatus  used  in  testing  milk  by  the  Bab- 
cock  method  consists  of  a  centrifugal  machine,  three 
pieces  of  glassware  and  commercial  sulphuric  acid. 

The  centrifugal  machine. — Many  forms  of  centri- 
fugal machines  are  in  use,  almost  every  manufacturer 
having  his  own  particular  style.  It  is  essential  that 
the  centrifugal  should  be  substantially  made  ;  that  it 
should  run  smoothly  and  steadily,  either  loaded  or 
empty,  and  that  it  should  be  capable  of  developing  a 
speed  of  900  revolutions  per  minute,  with  a  wheel 
20  inches  in  diameter.  The  centrifugals  so  made 
may  be  driven  either  by  hand,  electric,  or  steam 
power.  In  the  hand-power  machines,  the  motion  is 
transmitted  both  by  belts  and  by  friction  cogs ;  in 
the  latter  case  it  is  essential  that  care  be  taken  to 
prevent  loss  of  motion  through  the  friction  cogs  be- 
coming worn. 

In  the  centrifugals  driven  by  steam  turbines,  or 
jets  of  steam  delivered  against  the  circumference  of 
the  revolving  wheel,  it  is  much  better  that  the 
steam  be  applied  at  some  little  distance  from  the 
revolving  bottles,  otherwise  too  great  a  degree  of 
heat  may  be  developed  in  the  machine.  Woll  has 
shown*  that,  in  those  steam  turbines  in  which 


*  Hoard's   Dairyman,  March  9,  1900 :   vol.  31,  p.  75. 


The   Babcock    Test    Glassware 


95 


steam  is  introduced  into  the  bottle  chamber  or 
where  the  cover  fits  so  tightly  that  no  cold  air 
enters  the  chamber  during  the  whirling ;  the  bottles 
are  often  heated  to  such  a  degree  that  the  reading 
is  made  too  large  because  of  the  expansion  of  the 
fat  at  the  high  temperature.  The  fat  should  be  read 
at  a  temperature  of  110°  F., 
but  up  to  140°  F.  the  expan- 
sion is  not  sufficient  to  cause 
material  error.  When,  how- 
ever, the  temperature  rises  to 
200°  F.  or  thereabout,  as  fre- 
quently occurs  under  the  con- 
ditions named  above,  the  error 
due  to  the  expan- 
sion of  the  fat  may 
amount  to  .15  to 
.3  per  cent.  In  all 
such  cases  the  bot- 
tles should  be  al- 
lowed to  cool  to  at 
least  140°  F.  before 

reading.       Those     Cen-  Fig.  13.     Steam    turbine    centrifugal    for 

Babcock  test.     (See  opposite  page.) 

tnfugals      are     most 

satisfactory  in  which  provision  is  made  for  the  bottles 
to  assume  a  perfectly  horizontal  position  when  in  mo- 
tion and  a  perfectly  perpendicular  one  when  at  rest. 
The  glassware. —  The  glassware  consists  of  a  flask 
or  test  bottle  in  which  the  determination  is  made, 
a  graduated  pipette  for  measuring  the  milk,  and  a 
short  graduated  glass  cylinder  for  measuring  the 


96 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


acid.  The  most  essential  feature  of  the  glassware 
is  that  it  should  be  accurately  graduated.  This  in 
general  can  be  secured  by  always  procuring  the 
glassware  from  a  reliable  manufacturer  or  dealer, 


Fig.  14.  Forms  of  Babcock  test  bottles  ;    a,  ordinary  bottle  for  whole 
milk  ;    b,  bottle  for   skim  milk,  using  double  charge  of  milk  ; 

c,  Ohlsson,  or  "B.  &  W."  double-necked  bottle  for  skim  milk  ; 

d,  e,  bottles  for  testing  cream  ;  /,  bottle  with  detachable  neck  ; 
g,  h,  detachable  necks  for  butter  and  cream. 

though  suspected  glassware  may  be  tested  with  com- 
paratively little  difficulty.  The  neck  of  the  ordinary 
test  bottle  is  graduated  from  0  to  10,  each  divi- 
sion being  subdivided  into  five  parts.  The  gradua- 
tion from  0  to  10  will  contain  a  volume  of  melted 


Testing    Butter,   Cheese   and    Cream  97 

milk  fat  equivalent  to  10  per  cent  of  the  weight  of 
the  milk  taken.  Each  subdivision  of  the  '  scale, 
therefore,  represents  .2  of  1  per  cent.  The  capa- 
city of  the  graduated  portion  of  the  neck  is  two 
cubic  centimeters.  The  specific  gravity  of  melted 
milk  fat  at  a  temperature  of  120°  F.  is  assumed  to 
be  .9.  The  two  cubic  centimeters  will,  therefore, 
weigh  1.8  grams,  and.  in  order  that  the  percentage 
of  fat  read  off  shall  be  percentage  by  weight  and 
not  by  volume,  18  grams  of  milk  must  be  taken. 
But  milk  has  an  average  specific  gravity  of  1.032, 
therefore  18  grams  of  milk  will  be  contained  in 
17.44  cubic  centimeters.'  Two  cubic  centimeters  of 
melted  milk  fat  is,  therefore,  10  per  cent  by  weight 
of  17.44  cubic  centimeters  of  average  milk.  It 
has  been  found  by  trial  that  a  pipette  of  the  or- 
dinary form  graduated  at  17.6  cubic  centimeters 
will  deliver  slightly  less  than  17.5  cubic  centimeters 
of  milk.  The  graduation  of  the  ordinary  pipette 
should,  therefore,  be  17.6  cubic  centimeters.  A 
little  less  acid  than  milk  is  ordinarily  required,  and 
the  acid  measure  is  graduated  at  17.5  cubic  centi- 
meters, though  the  amount  of  acid  actually  used 
may  readily  vary  two  or  three  cubic  centimeters 
either  way  from  this  point. 

The  fat  in  the  various  products  of  milk  may 
be  as  readily  determined  by  means  of  this  test  as 
fat  in  the  milk  itself,  and  for  these  determinations 
various  forms  of  special  apparatus  have  been  de- 
vised. (Fig.  14.)  For  testing  cream,  bottles  with  a 
capacity  greater  than  10  per  cent  are  in  use.  Of 


98  Milk   and   Its   Products 

these  there  are  two  forms.  In  one  there  is  a  bulb 
in  the  middle  of  the  neck,  and  graduations  above 
and  below.  Ordinarily  the  lower  graduations  have  a 
capacity  of  5  per  cent,  the  bulb  a  capacity  of  10 
per  cent,  and  the  upper  graduations  a  capacity  of 
10  per  cent.  The  use  of  this  form  of  bottle  re- 
quires that  when  the  fat  is  read  off  the  bulb  should 
always  be  completely  full,  and  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  of  the  fat  rest  on  the  upper  and  lower 
graduations  respectively.  Another  form  of  cream 
test  bottle  has  a  neck  much  wider  than  that  used 
for  ordinary  milk  testing.  Bottles  of  this  form  have 
a  capacity  up  to  35  per  cent,  or  even  more.  The 
graduations  are  usually  not  closer  than  .5  of  1  per 
cent.  This  form  does  away  with  the  awkwardness 
of  the  bulb  in  the  center,  but  it  is  not  possible 
to  read  the  column  of  fat  to  so  small  a  fraction, 
usually  to  not  less  than  .5  of  1  per  cent.  For 
testing  cream,  particularly  cream  that  is  rich  in  fat, 
a  special  pipette  is  necessary.  The  specific  gravity 
of  cream  containing  25  per  cent  of  fat  or  over  is 
nearly  that  of  water,  'and  in  testing  cream  of  this 
quality  a  pipette  of  18  instead  of  17.6  cubic  cen- 
timeters capacity  is  used.  For  testing  skim -milk, 
where  it  is  desirable  to  read  the  small  fractions  of 
1  per  cent,  two  forms  of  bottles  have  been  devised. 
In  one,  two  pipettes  full  of  milk  are  used,  and  the 
graduations  have  one -half  the  ordinary  value  ;  in  the 
other  form,  the  bottle  has  two  necks,  one  of  ordi- 
nary width  for  the  introduction  of  the  milk  and  acid, 
and  the  other  an  extremely  narrow  one,  in  which 


Calibrating   the    Glassware  99 

the  fat  is  measured.  With  this  last  it  is  possible 
to  read  easily  to  .01  of  1  per  cent. 

The  fat  in  the  solid  milk  products,  as  butter  and 
cheese,  may  also  be  conveniently  determined  by  the 
Babcock  test.  Since  butter  or  cheese  cannot  be 
measured,  it  is  necessary  that  the  sample  to  be 
tested  be  weighed.  Balances  sensitive  to  .1  of  a 
gram  are  sufficiently  delicate.  Either  18  grams  of 
the  substance  may  be  weighed,  in  which  case  the 
percentage  of  fa,t  is  read  directly  from  the  bottle ; 
or,  what  is  more  convenient,  any  amount  from  4  to 
8  grams  may  be  taken.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
observed  reading  of  fat  bears  the  same  proportion 
to  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  substance  taken  that 
the  weight  of  the  sample  taken  bears  to  18  ;  and  the 
percentage  is  found  by  multiplying  the  observed  read- 
ing by  18  and  dividing  the  result  by  the  weight  of 
the  sample  taken. 

In  testing  butter  and  cheese,  it  is  convenient  to 
use  the  bottles  with  detachable  necks.  A  little 
water  should  be  added  to  the  bottle  before  the 
acid  is  put  in,  to  aid  in  the  solution  of  cheese. 

Calibration  of  glassware. — The  correctness  of  the 
graduation  of  the  glassware  may  be  tested  with  more 
or  less  accuracy  according  to  the  means  at  hand. 
The  bottles  are  all  graduated  on  the  assumption 
that  the  tubes  are  of  uniform  caliber.  The  0  and 
10  points  are  determined  experimentally,  and  the  in- 
tervening space  equally  divided  into  50  divisions 
with  a  dividing  engine.  The  spaces  should,  there- 
fore, be  of  uniform  size,  and  if  the  eye  can  detect 


100  Milk   and   Its   Products 

any  variation  in  the  size  of  the  spaces  such  bottles 
should  be  discarded.  Bottles  inaccurate  in  this 
respect  are  seldom  met  with  now.  When  the  test 
was  first  introduced  they  were  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. Bottles  may  be  readily  tested  with  a  pipette 
of  2  c.  c.*  capacity.  Fill  the  bottle  carefully  with 
water  to  the  0  point,  wipe  out  the  neck  carefulh', 
and  drop  in  exactly  2  c.  c.  of  water.  It  should 
just  fill  the  neck  to  the  top  of  the  graduation. 
If  delicate  balances  are  at  hand,  the  bottle  may  be 
weighed  full  of  distilled  or  clean  rain  water  to  the 
0  point,  and  then  again  filled  to  the  10  point. 
The  difference  in  weight  should  be  exactly  2  grams. 
The  calibration  will  be  still  more  accurate  if  mer- 
cury instead  of  water  is  used  ;  2  c.  c.  of  mercury 
may  be  measured  out,  or,  what  is  still  better, 
weighed.  The  specific  gravity  of  mercury  is  13.59  ; 
two  c.  c.  will,  therefore,  weigh  27.18  grams.  This 
weighed  or  measured  quantity  of  mercury  is  intro- 
duced into  a  dry  bottle,  a  close-fitting  plug  is  then 
inserted  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle  exactly  to  the 
top  of  the  graduation,  'the  bottle  is  then  inverted  ; 
the  mercury  should  exactly  fill  the  graduated  space. 
The  same  portion  of  mercury  can  then  be  used  to 
test  another  bottle,  and  with  care  to  have  the 
bottles  dry,  and  to  see  that  all  of  the  mercury  is 
transferred  each  time,  a  large  number  of  bottles  can 
be  easily  and  quickly  calibrated. 

The    pipettes      are    best     tested     by     weighing     a 
pipette   full   of   either   water   or   mercury ;   the  former 


*  Cubic  centimeter.    See  metric  system,  in  Appendix. 


Precautions   in   Sampling  'Mii'k  101 

should  weigh  17.6  grams,  the  latter  239  grams. 
Any  bottle  or  pipette  that  varies  more  than  2  per 
cent  from  the  standard  should  be  discarded. 

Sampling  the  milk. — The  accuracy  of  the  test 
depends  wholly  upon  getting  an  accurate  sample  of 
the  milk  to  be  analyzed.  A  part  of  the  fat  so 
readily  separates  from  the  milk  in  the  form  of 
cream  that  milk  cannot  stand  even  for  a  short 
time  without  the  upper  layer  becoming  richer  and 
the  lower  layers  poorer  in  fat.  Even  in  milk 
freshly  drawn  from  the  cow,  that  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  pail  will  be  considerably  richer  than  that 
below.  The  first  step,  then,  in  sampling  milk  is 
that  it  should  be  evenly  and  thoroughly  mixed. 
This  is  best  brought  about  by  pouring  from  one 
vessel  to  another  :  but  if  the  milk  has  stood  over 
night  and  a  layer  of  tough  cream  formed,  the  par- 
ticles of  cream  will  not  be  thoroughly  mixed  by  a 
single  pouring  from  one  vessel  to  another.  In 
all  such  cases,  the  sampling  must  not  be  done 
until  all  visible  portions  of  cream  have  disappeared 
in  the  mass  of  the  milk.  Various  forms  of  sam- 
pling tubes  or  "milk  thieves"  have  been  devised  for 
taking  samples  of  milk.  They  serve  the  purpose 
fairly  well,  but  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  in 
comparison  with  a  thorough  agitation  of  the  milk. 

Where  the  previous  night's  milk  is  carried  to  the 
factory,  the  agitation  enroute  and  the  stirring  inci- 
dent to  pouring  from  the  carrying  can  into  the 
weigh  can  are  ordinarily  sufficient  to  cause  a  pretty 
complete  mixture  of  the  milk  :  but  in  cold  weather 


102.  ;  ;•'$!"#*    and  Its   Products 

it  will  frequently  be  noticed  that  the  cream  is  not 
thoroughly  broken  up.  Under  such  conditions,  extra 
precautions  must  be  taken  to  secure  perfect  sam- 
pling. 

Composite  sampling. — In  testing  milk  at  factories, 
it  is  more  convenient  to  take  a  sample  every  day, 
and  make  one  test  of  the  mixed  samples  at  the  end 
of  a  week,  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  In  order  to  do 
this,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  suitable  receptacle 
for  the  milk  of  each  patron.  ( Pint  lightning -top 
fruit  jars  or  milk  bottles,  or  glass -stoppered  sample 
bottles,  are  most  convenient.  )  To  these  bottles  is 
added  each  day  a  small  portion  of  each  patron's 
milk,  together  with  some  preservative  for  preventing 
the  milk  from  souring.  The  preservatives  in  com- 
mon use  are  bichromate  of  potash,  corrosive  subli- 
mate, and  milk  preservaline.  Caustic  potash  and 
soda  may  also  be  used.  Neumann*  claims  to  have 
had  as  good  results  with  sodium  nitrate  as  with 
bichromate  of  potash.  Most  of  these  substances  are 
poisons,  and  render  the  milk  unfit  for  use;  the. jar 
should,  therefore,  be  plainly  labeled.  For  this  purpose 
colored  corrosive  sublimate  is  now  in  almost  universal 
use.  It  gives  a  distinct  color  to  the  milk,  and  only  a 
small  quantity  of  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  milk 
from  souring.  Whatever  preservative  is  employed 
should  only  be  used  in  quantity  sufficient  to  keep 
the  milk  from  thickening.  Of  the  bichromate  of 
potash,  an  amount  sufficient  to  color  the  milk  a  bright 
lemon  yellow  is  all  that  is  necessary.  In  taking 


*  Milch  Zeitung,  vol.  xxii.  p.   526. 


Measuring   the   Milk  103 

composite  samples,  an  amount  proportionate  to  the 
amount  of  milk  delivered  should  be  taken  each  day. 
This  is  conveniently  done  by  the  use  of  the  Scovell 
Aliquot  Milk  Sampler,  which,  besides  serving  this 
purpose,  gives  the  advantages  of  a  milk  thief  in  that 
it  takes  milk  from  all  parts  of  the  vessel.  Where 
the  milk  varies  only  a  few  pounds  from  day  to 
day,  good  results  may  be  obtained  by  taking  a  uni- 
form amount  of  milk  for  the  sample  each  day,  but 
where  the  variation  in  quantity  is  considerable, 
aliquot  samplers  are  much  to  be  preferred. 

Making  the  test. — In  preparing  to  make  the  test, 
the  same  care  must  be  used  that  the  sample  shall 
be  thoroughly  mixed  and  perfectly  uniform,  that 
was  taken  in  mixing  the  milk  when  the  sample 
was  drawn.  In  measuring  the  milk,  the  pipette 
should  either  be  perfectly  dry,  or  rinsed  out  with 
the  milk  to  be  tested  immediately  before  measur- 
ing the  assay.  Where  a  large  number  of  samples 
are  to  be  tested,  the  latter  is  found  to  be  the  better 
practice.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken,  that  the 
milk  is  accurately  measured.  The  lower  end  of 
the  pipette  should  be  placed  about  midway  of  the 
sample  of  milk  and  the  pipette  filled  by  gentle 
suction  at  the  upper  end.  The  milk  should  be 
drawn  into  the  tube  above  the  mark  on  the  neck, 
and  the  end  of  the  forefinger  quickly  placed  over 
the  end  of  the  pipette,  the  pipette  being  steadied 
by  the  thumb  and  second  and  third  fingers  ;  hold- 
ing it  now  on  a  level  with  the  eye  between  the  eye 
and  the  light,  the  pressure  on  the  forefinger 


104  Milk  and   Its    Products 

should  be  gradually  relaxed  and  the  milk  allowed 
to  flow  out  of  the  lower  end  drop  by  drop  until 
the  upper  edge  of  the  milk  rests  exactly  upon  the 
graduated  mark  on  the  side  of  the  pipette.  The 
milk  is  then  transferred  to  the  test  bottle,  and  this 
should  always  be  done  by  placing  the  end  of  the 
pipette  against  the  side  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle, 
relaxing  the  pressure  of  the  forefinger  gently  at 
first,  allowing  the  milk  to  flow  down  the  side  of 
the  neck.  If  this  is  not  done  there  is  danger  that 
the  neck  will  become  clogged,  and  a  part  of  the 
milk  be  blown  out  .by  the  escaping  air.  When 
all  of  the  milk  has  flowed  from  the  pipette,  the  last 
few  drops  should  be  gently  blown  into  the  neck  of 
the  test  bottle.  The  utmost  care  must  be  taken 
that  all  of  the  milk  is  transferred  from  the  pipette 
to  the  test  bottle,  and  none  allowed  to  escape. 

The  acid. — The  next  step  is  the  addition  of  the 
acid.  The  acid  should  be  put  into  the  test  bottle  in 
such  a  way  that  it  will  rinse  down  any  milk  that 
has  adhered  to  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  pass  be- 
tween the  milk  and  the'  glass  in  reaching  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bottle.  As  soon  as  the  acid  is  added, 
the  milk  and  acid  should  be  shaken  together  with  a 
gentle  rotary  motion  until  all  of  the  curd  is  com- 
pletely dissolved,  care  being  taken  that  no  particles 
of  curd  are  thrown  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 
The  amount  of  acid  used  should  be  about  the  same 
in  volume  as  the  milk,  depending  somewhat  upon 
its  strength.  Ordinary  commercial  sulphuric  acid 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82  will  require  about 


Finishing    the    Test  105 

17.5  cubic  centimeters  to  completely  dissolve  17..6 
cubic  centimeters  of  milk.  If  the  acid  is  too  weak 
the  curd  will  not  be  completely  dissolved,  and  will 
appear  as  a  curdy,  flocculent  precipitate  mixed  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  column  of  fat.  If  the  acid 
is  too  strong,  some  of  the  solids  of  the  milk  will 
be  charred,  and  will  appear  as  dark -colored,  floc- 
culent particles,  either  mixed  with  the  fat  or  im- 
mediately under  them,  when  the  test  is  completed. 
Slight  differences  in  the  strength  of  the  acid  may  be 
overcome  by  adding  a  little  more  or  a  little  less,  ac- 
cording as  it  is  too  weak  or  too  strong,  but  satis- 
factory results  cannot  be  depended  upon  unless  the 
acid  is  of  the  right  strength;  viz.,  1.82  sp.  gr. 
Convenient  hydrometers  may  be  secured  for  a  tri- 
fling amount,  so  that  any  one  may  be  certain  of  the 
strength  of  his  acid.  The  sulphuric  acid  should 
be  kept  tightly  corked  in  a  glass  -  stoppered  bottle, 
because  when  exposed  to  the  air,  it  takes  up  water 
rapidly,  and  soon  becomes  too  weak.  While  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  sulphuric  acid  should  be  chemi- 
cally pure,  some  of  the  cheaper  grades  of  commer- 
cial acid  often  contain  impurities  that  seriously 
affect  the  results,  causing  black  specks  to  appear  in 
the  neck  of  the  bottle.  A  reasonably  pure  commer- 
cial acid  should  always  be  used,  and  can  be  secured 
at  a  trifling  cost  above  the  impurer  forms. 

Whirling. — When  the  acid  has  been  added  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  all  of  the  samples,  they  are 
put  into  the  centrifugal  machine  and  whirled  steadily 
for  five  minutes.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  ma- 


106  Milk   and  Its    Products 

chine  is  stopped,  and  the  bottles  are  filled  with 
warm  water  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  They  are 
then  whirled  a  second  time  for  two  minutes,  when 
water  is  again  added  up  to  about  the  8  per  cent 
mark  on  the-  neck  of  the  bottle,  after 
which  they  are  given  a  whirl  for  one  min- 
ute. The  bottles  are  then  taken  out  and 
as  -rapidly  as  possible. 


Reading. — The  reading   should   be   taken 
at    a    temperature    between    110°     and    140° 
F.,  at   which    temperatures  the   fat   will   be 
completely  fluid.      The  test  should   be  made 
in    a    room  at   a   temperature  not   less   than 
70    F.,   or    if     the    room     is   much     colder 
some     means    should    be     taken    to  prevent 
the  bottles  from  becoming  cool  until  all  are 
read.        Much    skill    and    facility    can     be 
attained    by  practice    in  reading  the   bottles 
""^rapidly    and    accurately.       In    reading     the 
bottles,  the    .reading    should     be    made    as 
shown   in    the    diagram,   the    lower   reading 
Fig.  is.    Dia-  from    the    extreme    lower    curved    surface 
ofanBabcock  (a,  Fig.  15),  and    the   upper    reading   from 
thl  reading  the    extreme     top    of    the    column    of    fat, 


be^  (6,  not   c,  Fig.  15),  the    difference  between 

tween     the  ,  .  .     .  _ 

points  a-6,  the  lower  and  upper  reading  giving  the 
percentage  of  fat.  The  reason  for  read- 
ing in  this  way  is  that  a  small  amount  of  residual 
fat  is  left  mixed  with  the  other  fluids  in  the  bottle. 
This  is  composed  of  the  smaller  globules  of  fat,  and 
the  amount  is  practically  uniform,  and  has  been 


Estimation    of  Solids  not   Fat  107 

found  to  represent  about  the  amount  occupied  by 
the  curved  surfaces  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle, 
due  to  the  capillary  attraction  between  the  fat  and 
the  glass. 

Cleaning  the  glassware. — Good  results  cannot  be 
secured  unless  the  glassware  is  kept  clean  and 
bright.  This  can  easily  be  done  with  very  little 
trouble.  As  soon  as  the  bottles  are  read,  and  while 
they  are  still  hot,  the  contents  should  be  emptied 
out.  The  hot  acid  and  water  will  carry  out  with 
it  the  larger  part  of  the  fat  in  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  The  emptied  bottle  should  then  be  rinsed 
once  in  warm  water  and  once  in  hot  water  containing 
some  alkali,  either  washing  soda  or  any  of  the  va- 
rious washing  powders,  and  then  rinsed  with  either 
warm  or  cold  water  until  they  are  perfectly  clean. 
With  these  precautions  no  difficulty  will  be  expe- 
rienced in  keeping  the  bottles  clean  and  bright. 

By  the  use  of  the  lactometer  in  connection  with 
the  percentage  of  fat,  a  close  approximation  to  the 
percentage  of  total  solids,  or  solids  not  fat,  may  be 
made.  Numerous  formula  for  this  purpose  have 
been  devised.  Their  application  is  explained  and  il- 
lustrated in  Part  A  of  the  Appendix. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE  FERMENTS  AND  FERMENTATIONS   OF  MILK, 
AND  THEIR    CONTROL 

MILK,  when  it  is  first  drawn,  is  a  limpid  fluid 
with  a  slight  odor,  mildly  sweetish  taste,  and  faint 
alkaline  reaction.  In  fact,  milk  often  shows  the 
amphoteric  reaction  ;  that  is,  it  will  give  the  acid 
reaction  with  blue  litmus  paper  and  the  alkaline 
reaction  with  red.  Almost  immediately  after  it  is 
drawn,  milk  begins  to  undergo  a  change,  and  within 
a  short  time  will  show  a  distinct  acid  reaction. 
The  degree  of  acidity  increases  with  the  age  of  the 
milk.  Soon  changes  begin  in  the  other  milk  con- 
stituents, and  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  the  de- 
composition is  so  great  that  the  milk  can  no  longer 
be  used  for  food.  The  sugar  is  the  first  constit- 
uent of  the  milk  to  undergo  change,  afterwards 
the  albuminoids  are  attacked,  and  lastly  the  fats. 
These  changes  are  not  due  to  any  instability  of  the 
organic  compounds  in  the  milk,  but  to  the  effect 
of  various  vegetable  germs  that  gain  access  to  the 
milk  after  it  is  secreted,  and,  living  and  growing 
in  the  milk,  bring  about  the  changes  mentioned. 
These  changes  are  called  fermentations,  and  the 
agents  that  bring  them  about  ferments.  Milk  con- 
taining no  germs  of  fermentation,  or  milk  from 

(108) 


General    Characters   of  Bacteria  109 

which  they  have  all  been  removed,  is  said  to  be 
sterile.  The  germs  found  in  milk  belong  to  the 
lowest  orders  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Most  of 
them  are  included  in  the  bacteria,  although  many 
yeasts  and  moulds  are  frequently  found  in  milk. 

The  bacteria. — The  bacteria  are  extremely  minute 
bodies  consisting  of  a  single  cell  filled  with  protoplasm. 
They  are  of  three  general  forms, —  spherical  (coccus); 
rod -like  or  cylindrical  (bacillus),  and  curved  or  wavy 
(spirillum).  They  reproduce  by  fission;  that  jg,  the 
cell  elongates  slightly  in  the  direction  of  its  longer- 
axis,  and  a  partition  is  formed  across  the  cell  trans- 
versely, and  two  individuals  exist  where  there  was 
but  one  before.  These  may  break  away  and  form 
separate  bacteria,  but  often  they  are  kept  together 
in  various  ways.  Many  forms  are  endowed  with 
motion,  and  all  require  a  liquid  or  semi -liquid  me- 
dium for  growth  and  development,  though  many 
may  exist  for  long  periods  of  time  in  a  dry  condi- 
tion. Like  other  plants,  in  order  to  grow  and  de- 
velop, the  bacteria  must  have  suitable  food.  They 
require  for  their  sustenance  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxy- 
gen and  nitrogen,  together  with  small  amounts 
of  mineral  matters.  Organic  compounds  are  more 
available  for  food  supply  than  simple  inorganic 
salts.  Substances  like  sugar  and  the  various  al- 
buminous compounds  are  admirably  suited  for  their 
food.  In  ordinary  milk  nearly  all  kinds  of  bacteria 
find  an  adequate  and  easily  available  food  supply 
in  a  medium  favorable  to  their  growth,  so  that  not 
only  the  forms  of  bacteria  ordinarily  found  in  milk, 


110  Milk   and   Its   Products 

but  almost  any  others,  will  readily  live  and  grow 
should  they  gain  access  to  milk.  Nearly  all  forms 
of  bacteria  are  sensitive  to  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture. The  range  of  temperature  in  which  they 
thrive  the  best  and  grow  most  rapidly  is  rather 
narrow,  though  there  is  a  considerable  range  above 
or  below,  in  which  they  will  still  grow  and  develop. 
The  temperature  at  which  any  given  germ  will  grow 
most  rapidly  is  called  the  optimum  temperature,  and 
the  optimum  temperature  varies  widely  with  the 
various  classes  of  organisms,  though  by  far  the 
larger  ^number  of  bacteria  find  their  optimum  point 
between  75°  to  100°  F.,  and  a  higher  temperature 
not  only  stops  their  growth,  but  if  sufficiently  high 
kills  them  outright.  A  temperature  of  135°  F.  kills  a 
large  number  of  germs.  Very  few  are  able  to  live 
above  a  temperature  of  180°,  and  none  can  with- 
stand the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  212°,  for 
more  than  a  few  minutes.  If  heat  is  accompanied 
by  moisture  it  is  much  more  effective,  so  that  heat 
applied  in  the  form  of  live  steam  is  the  best  means 
of  destroying  the  life,  of  these  germs.  Under  the 
influence  of  cold  the  germs  become  inactive,  and 
some  kinds  are  killed  by  a  sufficient  degree  of  cold, 
but  very  many  kinds  are  able  to  withstand  any 
degree  of  cold  possible  to  be  produced  for  long  pe- 
riods of  time. 

Under  certain  conditions  bacteria  are  able  to  as- 
sume an  inactive  condition,  or  spore  form.  In  do- 
ing this,  the  protoplasm  shrinks  into  a  hard,  glisten- 
ing mass,  and  contracts  toward  one  end  of  the  cell, 


Distribution   of  Bacteria  111 

or  the  cell  wall  thickens  and  encloses  the  proto- 
plasm. In  the  spore  condition  the  bacteria  are  in- 
active, but  are  able  to  endure  much  greater  extremes 
of  heat,  cold  or  moisture  than  when  active.  When 
the  conditions  of  growth  become  again  favorable,  the 
spore  again  becomes  active,  or  is  said  to  germinate, 
and  the  vital  processes  are  resumed. 

Bacteria  are  widely  distributed  through  nature. 
In  fact,  there  are  very  few  places  where  they  may 
not  be  found.  They  are  so  light  and  small  that 
they  float  readily  in  the  atmosphere,  particularly  when 
accompanied  by  particles  of  dust.  They  are  found 
in  all  rivers  and  streams,  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  upon  all  organic  matter.  In  fact,  they 
are  universally  distributed.  By  far  the  larger  num- 
ber are  not  only  perfectly  harmless  but  positively 
beneficial.  They  serve  to  transform  dead  organic 
matter  into  its  original  condition,  and  so  act  as 
scavengers.  Others,  like  the  milk  ferments,  bring 
about  specific  changes  in  some  definite  substances, 
while  still  others,  a  large  class,  are  the  specific 
causes  of  various  diseases  in  men  and  animals. 

Presence  of  bacteria  in  milk. — In  ordinary  milk, 
bacteria  are  always  present  in  large  numbers.  These 
gain  access  to  the  milk  from  the  atmosphere,  from 
the  bodies  of  the  animal  and  the  milker,  through 
contact  with  the  vessels  into  which  the  milk  is 
drawn,  and  to  some  extent  through  the  udder  of  the 
animal.  The  milk  when  secreted  is  sterile.  So 
far  as  is  known,  no  bacteria  can  pass  through  the 
digestive  organs  and  blood  vessels  of  the  animal 


112  Milk   and  Jts   Products 

and  appear  in  the  milk.  If  the  udder  is  the  seat 
of  disease  due  to  the  growth  of  bacteria,  such  bac- 
teria may  find  their  way  into  the  milk  ducts  and 
infect  the  milk.  In  one  other  way  the  animal  may 
be  said  to  be  a  source  of  infection  with  bacteria. 
The  end  of  the  teat  of  the  animal  is  always  more 
or  less  moist.  Bacteria  coming  in  contact  with 
such  surface,  moistened  with  milk,  find  there  not 
only  food  in  proper  form  for  their  growth,  but  a 
temperature  sufficient  to  make  them  active.  They 
begin  to  multiply,  and,  working  their  way  through 
the  orifice  of  the  teat,  find  milk  in  larger  supply,  and 
a  temperature  still  more  favorable  for  their  growth . 
They  increase  and  multiply,  under  such  conditions, 
with  remarkable  rapidity,  and  so  work  their  way 
upward  through  the  milk  cistern  and  into  the  larger 
milk  ducts,  so  that  the  milk  first  drawn  from  the 
animal  always  contains  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
bacteria.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  an  easy  matter 
to  secure  perfectly  sterile  milk  direct  from  the  cow, 
though  with  great  care  in  disinfecting  the  udder 
and  removing  the  larger  part  of  the  milk  from  it, 
perfectly  sterile  milk  has  been  obtained. 

Kinds  of  bacteria  in  milk. — Almost  any  of  the 
known  forms  of  bacteria  may  live  and  grow  and  oc- 
casionally be  found  in  milk.  Normally,  however,  com- 
paratively few  forms  of  bacteria  are  present.  The 
greater  part  of  these  are  forms  which  cause  various 
changes  in  the  constituents  of  milk,  and  are  known 
as  ferments,  and  the  changes  which  they  induce  as 
fermentations.  Beside  these  fermentations,  there  may 


Kinds   of  Milk   Fermentations  113 

be  found  in  the  milk  the  bacteria  of  any  germ  dis- 
ease with  which  the  animal  may  be  afflicted,  or  which 
may  be  carried  into  the  milk  through  the  atmosphere, 
the  water  used  in  cleansing  utensils,  or  the  persons 
of  individuals  suffering  from  the  disease. 

The  fermentations  of  milk. — The  normal  fermenta- 
tions to  which  milk  is  subject  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  three  classes.  First,  those  which  feed 
upon  and  cause  changes  in  the  milk-sugar,  known  as 
lactic  fermentations.  Second,  those  that  feed  upon 
and  cause  changes  in  the  albuminoids  of  the  milk  ; 
these  in  turn  are  of  two  classes,  peptogenic  and  pu- 
trefactive. Third,  those  which  attack  the  fats,  and 
are  known  as  butyric  fermentations.  Besides  these, 
which  may  be  called  normal  fermentations,  in  that 
they  will  easily  occur  in  any  sample  of  milk  if  left  to 
itself,  there  are  a  large  number  of  other  fermentations 
which  may  be  called  abnormal,  from  the  fact  that 
they  occur  only  in  isolated  localities,  or  from  time 
to  time.  These  abnormal  fermentations  include  one 
which  causes  the  casein  of  milk  to  coagulate  without 
the  development  of  lactic  acid,  known  as  sweet  curd- 
ling ;  another  which  causes  a  peculiarly  ropy  or  slimy 
condition  of  certain  constituents  of  milk  ;  still  an- 
other that  results  in  the  formation  of  an  intensely 
bitter  product  in  the  milk ;  an  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion, and  several  fermentations  which  result  in  the 
production  of  various  colors,  collectively  known  as 
chromogenic  fermentations.  An  illustration  of  this 
class  is  seen  in  the  well-known  "bloody  bread," 
which  is  caused  by  the  growth  of  Bacillus  prodigiosus. 
H 


114  Milk   and  Its  Products 

This  germ  is  occasionally  found  in  milk,  and  imparts 
to  it  a  red  color  which  is  easily  confounded  with 
the  red  color  due  to  the  presence  of  blood  from  a 
wounded  udder.  A  single  germ  rarely  occasions 
more  than  a  single  fermentation.  Often  two  or  more 
are  combined  in  the  fermentation,  and  in  many  cases 
there  are  a  large  number  of  different  germs  that 
bring  about  the  same  fermentation.  This  is  notably 
true  of  the  lactic  and  putrefactive  fermentations. 
The  effect  of  the  various  fermentations  is  such  as  to 
destroy  the  value  of  the  milk  as  such,  if  they  are  al- 
lowed to  proceed  to  any  great  length  ;  but  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  is  greatly  aided  by  many  of  these 
fermentations,  and  the  presence  of  certain  germs  is 
absolutely  indispensable  to  the  manufacture  of  cheese. 
Relation  of  milk  bacteria  to  the  human  system. — By 
far  the  greater  number  of  germs  ordinarily  found  in 
milk  are  absolutely  harmless,  and  may  be  taken  into 
the  human  system  in  large  numbers  with  perfect 
impunity,  the  germs  of  specific  disease  excepted,  and 
with  these  latter  it  is  the  products  formed  from  their 
growth  rather  than  the  germs  themselves  from  which 
danger  comes.  There  are  probably  no  germs  normally 
found  in  milk  that  may  be  classed  as  harmful.  This 
is  also  true  of  a  considerable  number  of  fermen- 
tation products  resulting  from  the  growth  of  the 
germs  in  the  milk.  Many  of  these  products  give 
to  the  milk  or  its  product  an  unpleasant  taste  or 
physical  appearance,  but  are  otherwise  perfectly 
harmless.  There  are,  however,  certain  germs  which 
produce  a  fermentation  which  results  in  the  forma- 


The   Lactic   Acid    Germ  115 

tion  of  poisonous  products.  These  products  are  the 
causes  of  the  serious  or  even  fatal  results  that  fol- 
low the  consumption  of  milk,  cheese,  ice-cream,  or 
other  products  containing  them.  They  are  collect- 
ively known  as  ptomaines.  To  one  in  particular, 
that  has  frequently  been  found  in  cheese,  the  name 
tyrotoxicon  (cheese -poison)  has  been  given.  They 
have  been  studied  by  Vaughn*  and  others,  but 
their  origin  is  still  obscure.  The  germs  producing 
these  poisonous  products  are  of  comparatively  in- 
frequent occurrence. 

In  general,  the  various  classes  of  fermentations  do 
not  readily  take  place  at  the  same  time.  The  active 
growth  and  development  of  one  germ  acts  more  or 
less  as  a  retarding  force  upon  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  other  germs. 

Lactic  fermentations. — Under  this  group  we  include 
all  of  those  germs  which,  living  and  growing  in 
milk,  feed  upon  the  sugar,  causing  it  to  change  to 
lactic  acid.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  forma- 
tion of  lactic  acid  in  the  milk  was  entirely  due  to  the 
action  of  a  single  germ,  described  by  Hueppe,  and 
called  Bacillus  acidi-lactici,  or  the  lactic  acid  germ. 
It  is  now  known  that  there  are  at  least  twenty  different 
germs  that  may  produce  lactic  acid,  and  in  all  prob- 
ability there  are  many  more.  The  lactic  acid  germs 
are  the  most  common  and  most  numerous  germs 
found  in  milk,  and  ordinarily  the  lactic  fermentations 
are  the  first  to  take  place.  They  begin  their  opera- 


*  Vaughn-Novy.    Ptomaines  and   Leucomaines,  Philadelphia,   1896. 


116  Milk   and   Its   Products 

tions  almost  immediately  after  the  milk  is  drawn,  and 
continue  until  the  maximum  amount  of  lactic  acid  has 
been  produced.  In  the  lactic  acid  fermentations  one 
molecule  of  milk-sugar  (Ci2H22On  -f  EbO)  breaks  up 
into  four  molecules  of  lactic  acid  (CsHeOs)  without 
the  formation  of  any  secondary  or  by-product.  The 
presence  of  the  lactic  acid  serves  to  coagulate  the 
casein,  so  that  curdling  of  the  milk  is  always  an 
accompaniment  of  the  lactic  fermentation  after  it 
has  reached  a  certain  stage.  The  presence  of  lactic 
acid  is  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  the  ordinary 
germs  of  lactic  fermentation,  and  when  a  certain 
amount  of  lactic  acid  has  been  formed  (about  .8  of  1 
per  cent  of  the  whole  milk),  the  further  develop- 
ment of  lactic  acid  ceases.  In  milk  of  ordinary 
quality,  this  occurs  when  about  one -fourth  of  the 
milk-sugar  has  been  changed  to  lactic  acid.  If  the 
acid  be  neutralized  with  an  alkali,  the  fermentation 
will  then  proceed  until  another  portion  of  milk -sugar- 
has  been  changed  to  lactic  acid,  showing  that  the 
lactic  acid  simply  prevents  the  growth  of  the  germs, 
and  does  not  kill  them.'  Lactic  acid  germs  are  most 
active  at  temperatures  between  80°  and  100°  F.;  at 
temperatures  below  80°  they  gradually  lose  their  ac- 
tivity, and  below  50°  little  or  no  lactic  acid  will  be 
formed.  At  these  low  temperatures  they  are  simply 
inactive,  not  dead.  At  a  temperature  of  105°  F., 
the  lactic  germs  become  inactive,  and  a  large  propor- 
tion of  them  are  killed  at  a  temperature  from  135° 
to  140°  F.  In  milk,  lactic  acid  fermentation  means 
simply  souring,  and  it  renders  the  milk  unfit  for  use, 


Putrefactive   Fermentations  117 

almost  wholly  because  the  taste  is  unpleasant  to 
the  ordinary  palate.  A  large  amount  of  lactic  acid 
is,  perhaps,  injurious  to  young  and  delicate  or  weak 
digestive  organs,  but  ordinarily  is  harmless.  Lactic 
acid  fermentations  are  extremely  important  in  the 
processes  of  both  butter  and  cheese  manufacture, 
and  their  relations  to  these  processes  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  detail  in  the  proper  place. 

Fermentations  affecting  the  albuminoids. — These  in- 
clude ordinary  putrefactive  fermentations,  peptogenic 
fermentations,  and  fermentations  resulting  in  the  for- 
mation of  poisonous  products.  These  fermentations, 
as  a  rule,  do  not  thrive  in  the  presence  of  a  strong 
lactic  fermentation,  so  that  ordinarily  they  do  not 
manifest  themselves  in  milk  unless  the  conditions  are 
peculiarly  favorable  for  their  development  and  un- 
favorable for  the  development  of  lactic  acid.  Many 
of  the  putrefactive  fermentations  will  go  on  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  the  lactic  fermentations  do  ; 
hence  it  is  often  found,  when  milk  is  kept  at  a  low 
temperature  in  order  to  keep  it  from  souring,  that 
after  a  certain  time  it  becomes  bitter  or  foul -smell- 
ing. This  condition  is  caused  by  some  one  of  the 
characteristic  putrefactive  fermentations.  The  putre- 
factive germs  also  readily  take  on  the  spore  form, 
and  in  this  condition  are  not  so  readily  killed  by 
heat.  The  putrefactive  fermentations  usually  result 
in  the  formation  of  bitter  or  other  unpleasant  flavors 
and  disagreeable  odors,  and  they  are  frequently  ac- 
companied by  a  considerable  evolution  of  gas.  Pep- 
togenic  fermentations  are  those  which  exert  a  pep- 


118  Milk  and  Its  Products 

tonizing  or  digestive  action  upon  the  albuminoids. 
By  their  action  the  casein  is  first  coagulated,  and 
finally  liquefied  or  changed  into  a  peptone. 

Butyric  fermentations.  —  The  butyric  ferments  at- 
tack the  fats,  and  result  in  the  formation  of  bu- 
tyric acid.  They  produce  the  peculiar  condition 
found  in  cream  and  butter  known  as  rancidity,  and 
do  not  usually  manifest  themselves  very  strongly  in 
the  milk. 


CONTROL    OF    FERMENTATIONS 

Since  fermentations  always  occur  in  milk  that  is 
kept  for  any  considerable  time,  and  since  they  exert 
so  powerful  an  influence,  not  only  upon  the  milk 
but  upon  the  products  manufactured  from  it,  the 
question  of  their  control  is  one  of  prime  importance. 
The  three  chief  means  of  such  control  are  :  First, 
prevention  of  infection  ;  second,  prevention  of  the 
growth  of  germs  already  present  ;  third,  destruction 
of  germs  already  prese'nt. 

Prevention  of  infection.  — The  greatest  source  of 
infection  comes  from  the  body  of  the  animal  and 
from  the  air  of  the  stable.  The  germs  are  always 
present,  adhering  to  the  hair  of  the  animal,  and  par- 
ticularly to  any  particles  of  dust  or  dirt.  In  order, 
then,  that  the  animal  shall  not  be  a  source  of  infec- 
tion, it  is  necessary  that  she  be  carefully  curried 
and  the  udder,  teats,  flank,  thighs  and  lower  parts 
of  the  belly  wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth  immediately 


Prevention   of  Infection  119 

before  milking.  It  is  of  course  necessary,  also,  that 
the  hands  and  clothes  of  the  milker  should  be  as 
carefully  attended  to  in  this  respect  as  is  the  body  of 
the  cow.  The  bacteria  find  in  the  excrements  abun- 
dant food  for  growth  and  development,  and  are  al- 
ways found  in  large  numbers  where  such  excrements 
are  allowed  to  collect ;  and  when  dirt  of  this  sort  ac- 
cumulates and  becomes  dried,  the  dust  floating  in  the 
air  always  carries  with  it  large  numbers  of  germs. 
The  germs  are  also  found  in  large  numbers  accom- 
panying the  dust  arising  from  hay  and  other  dried 
forage.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  essential  not  only 
that  the  stable  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean, 
but  that  the  air  should  be  free  from  dust,  partic- 
ularly at  times  when  milking  is  going  on.  Thor- 
oughly sweeping  and  then  sprinkling  the  stable 
floors  an  hour  or  two  before  the  milking  will  mate- 
rially lessen  the  germ  content  of  the  milk. 

Next  to  the  stable,  the  dairy  utensils  are  an  im- 
portant source  of  infection  with  bacteria.  They  be- 
come attached  to  the  seams  and  corners  of  the  ves- 
sels, and  are  not  dislodged  even  with  the  most  careful 
cleaning,  and  when  the  fresh,  warm  milk  is  drawn 
into  such  vessels  the  germs  immediately  begin  to  grow 
and  develop.  The  most  scrupulous  care  must,  of 
course,  be  taken  in  cleaning  any  vessels  in  which 
milk  is  contained,  but  no  vessel  can  be  considered 
safe  so  far  as  conveying  germs  is  concerned  unless 
it  has  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  live  steam  for 
at  least  three  minutes,  and  then  kept  in  a  secure 
place  until  needed  for  use.  With  these  precautions 


120  Milk  and  Its  Products 

in  regard  to  the  animal,  milker  and  utensils,  milk 
may  be  secured  with  a  minimum  number  of  bacteria. 
The  difference  in  the  number  of  bacteria  in  milk  so 
drawn,  and  in  milk  carelessly  drawn,  may  easily 
amount  to  a  difference  of  eighteen  to  twenty -four 
hours  in  keeping  quality  under  like  conditions. 

Holding  at  low  temperatures.  — If  milk  be  immedi- 
ately cooled  to  a  temperature  of  40°  F.,  or  thereabouts, 
very  little  fermentation  will  go  on,  though  it  will  be 
frequently  found  that  after  three  or  four  days  the 
milk  or  cream  may  have  a  more  or  less  disagreeable 
flavor,  due  to  the  presence  o£  some  germs  that  de- 
velop slowly  even  at  low  temperatures.  If  low  tem- 
peratures are  to  be  depended  upon  as  a  means  of 
keeping  fermentations  in  check,  it  is,  of  course,  of 
prime  importance  that  every  precaution  should  have 
been  taken  to  prevent  the  access  of  germs  to  the 
milk  in  the  first  place.  The  fewer  germs  the  milk 
contains  to  begin  with,  the  more  effective  will  low 
temperatures  be  as  a  means  of  preservation.  With 
care  in  both  these  respects,  milk  or  cream  may  be 
kept  in  a  fresh  and '  merchantable  condition  for  a 
week  or  ten  days. 

Destruction  of  germs  in  the  milk. — A  large  number 
of  chemical  agents  is  more  or  less  destructive  to 
germ  life.  Many  of  them  are  so  violent  in  their 
action  as  to  destroy  the  milk  as  well  as  the  germs, 
but  there  are  many  which  are  destructive  to  germ 
life,  with  no  effect  upon  the  composition,  odor  or 
flavor  of  the  milk  ;  but  all  of  these  without  excep- 
tion are  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  human  sys- 


Antiseptics   and   Disinfectants  121 

tern,  particularly  if  they  are  used  continuously,  even 
though  only  in  small  quantities.  Of  the  compounds 
which  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  formalin,  saly- 
cilic  and  boracic  acids  and  their  derivatives  are  un- 
doubtedly the  least  injurious,  but  their  use  is  not 
to  be  recommended  under  any  circumstances.  Some 
attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  the  electric  cur- 
rent as  a  means  of  destroying  germ  life  in  milk  ; 
but  they  have  so  far  proved  ineffectual,  and  in- 
stances are  reported*  where  electrolysis  of  the  milk 
constituents  occurred  where  a  continuous  current  was 
employed.  Heat,  then,  is  the  only  available  agent 
that  can  be  used  for  the  destruction  of  germs  al- 
ready present  in  the  milk.  This  destruction  of  germs 
in  milk  or  any  other  fluid  by  means  of  heat  is  called 
sterilization.  In  order  to  absolutely  sterilize  any  sub- 
stance, it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  subjected 
to  a  heat  of  212°  to  240°  F.  for  one  hour  on  each 
of  three  successive  days.  This  will  kill  not  only  the 
germs  that  are  in  active  growing  condition,  but  any 
spores  that  may  be  present.  A  lower  temperature, 
175°  to  212°  F.,  will  kill  actively  growing  germs,  but 
even  at  this  temperature  chemical  changes  are  set  up 
in  the  milk  which  give  rise  to  flavors  known  as 
boiled  or  cooked  flavors,  that  are  disagreeable  to  a 
large  number  of  people.  In  order  to  overcome  the 
bad  effects  of  heating  at  such  high  temperatures 
another  process,  known  as  pasteurization,  is  used. 
Pasteurization.— The  name  is  taken  from  Pasteur, 

*  L'Industrie  Laitiere,  April  1896. 


122  Milk  and  Its   Products 

who  discovered  and  used  the  process  in  controlling 
the  fermentations  of  wine  and  beer.  It  differs  from 
sterilization  only  in  the  degree  of  heat  used,  and,  in 
fact,  may  be  properly  called  an  incomplete  or  partial 
sterilization.  The  destructive  effect  of  heat  upon 
germ  life  depends  both  upon  .the  degree  of  heat  and 
the  length  of  time  to  which  the  germs  are  exposed. 
A  large  number  of  germs  are  killed  at  temperatures 
from  133°  to  140°  F.,  while  others  are  killed  at  tem- 
peratures varying  from  150°  to  165°  F.  These  latter 
temperatures  include  the  germs  of  all  of  the  ordinary 
ferments  and  most  of  the  germs  of  specific  diseases, 
including  that  of  the  tubercle  bacillus.  Since  the 
tubercle  bacillus  is  the  disease  germ  most  likely  to  be 
present,  milk  is  ordinarily  considered  to  be  safe  from 
disease  germs  when  it  has  been  pasteurized  at  a  tem- 
perature sufficiently  high  to  destroy  it.  This  is  a 
temperature  of  149°  F.  for  thirty  minutes,  a  tem- 
perature of  155°  F.  for  fifteen  minutes,  or  a  tempera- 
ture of  167°  F.  for  ten  minutes,  and  these  temperatures 
have  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  standard  pasteuriz- 
ing temperatures.  Milk  may  be  heated  to  165°  F., 
if  quickly  cooled  afterwards,  without  developing  a 
boiled  taste ;  so  that  it  is  possible  that  milk  be 
rendered  safe  from  the  germs  of  disease  and  free 
from  the  ordinary  germs  of  fermentation  without 
developing  in  it  a  boiled  taste.  But  in  order  to 
pasteurize  milk  safely,  it  is  necessary  that  means 
should  be  provided  for  cooling  rapidly  from  the 
pasteurizing  temperatures  to  50°  F.  or  below. 

Milk  carefully  pasteurized,   as  above  described,   will 


Apparatus  for   Pasteurization  123 

remain  sweet  thirty -six  to  forty -eight  hours  longer 
at  ordinary  temperatures  than  milk  not  pasteurized, 
from  which  germs  have  been  excluded  with  ordinary 
care. 

The  problem  of  successful  pasteurization,  then, 
depends  upon  the  means  of  raising  the  milk  in  a 
short  time  to  the  required  temperature,  holding  it 
there  uniformly  for  ten  or  twenty  minutes,  and  then 
cooling  it  rapidly  to  50°  or  below.  Several  forms 
of  apparatus  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose. 
Some  of  them  are  fairly  perfect,  but  most  of  them 
are  lacking  in  some  important  point,  v  With  the  pres- 
ent activity  in  regard  to  this  subject  we  shall  un- 
doubtedly soon  have  much  more  perfect  apparatuses  for 
this  purpose  than  are  at  present  available.  The  per- 
fect pasteurizing  machine  should  cover  the  following 
points:  Quick,  perfect  and  uniform  heating  of  the 
milk;  perfect  control  of  the  temperature;  quick  and 
uniform  cooling;  compact  form;  ease  of  cleansing; 
absence  of  pumping  arrangements;  security  against 
re -infection  during  the  process. 

Selection  of  milk  for  pasteurization. — For  the  best 
results  in  pasteurizing,  it  is  also  essential  that  the 
milk  be  as  fresh  and  free  from  fermentations  as 
possible.  Russel  and  Farrington  have  found*  that 
milk  that  has  developed  as  much  as  .2  of  1  per 
cent  of  lactic  acid  is  too  sour  for  satisfactory  re- 
sults. Inasmuch  as  this  amount  of  acid  cannot 
readily  be  detected  by  the  senses  of  smell  or  taste, 

*Wisconsin  Agr.  Exp.   Station,  Bulls.  44  and  52. 


124  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Farrington's  alkaline  tablets  offer  a  very  convenient 
means  of  selecting  milks  that  are  suitable  or  un- 
suitable for  pastuerizing  purposes.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  convenient  to  make  the  tablet  solution  (see 
Chap.  X.)  by  dissolving  one  tablet  in  each  ounce 
of  water,  or  one  tablet  in  30  c.  c.  of  water.  Then 
with  a  cup  or  other  convenient  vessel  and  a  small 
measure  of  any  suitable  size,  the  comparative  acid- 
ity of  different  milks  can  be  readily  and  quickly  de- 
termined as  follows  :  Put  a  measure  full  of  milk 
into  the  cup  and  add  two  measures  of  the  tablet 
solution.  If  the  color  disappears,  more  than  .2  of  1 
per  cent  of  lactic  acid  is  present,  and  the  milk  is  too 
sour  for  pasteurizing  purposes.  If  the  milk  remains 
pink,  less  than  .2  of  1  per  cent  of  lactic  acid  is  pres- 
ent, and  the  milk  may  be  safely  used.  If  it  is 
desirable  to  measure  the  amount  of  acid,  each  meas- 
ure of  solution  may  be  roughly  taken  to  represent 
.1  of  1  per  cent  of  acid.  Thus,  if  the  pink  color 
remains  when  one  measure  of  the  solution  has  been 
added,  the  milk  contains  .1  per  cent  of  acid.  If  it 
require  four  measures  of  the  solution  before  the  pink 
color  is  permanent,  the  milk  contains  .4  per  cent  of 
acid.  A  convenient  measure  for  this  purpose  is  made 
by  soldering  a  piece  of  stiff  wire  to  the  side  of  a 
No.  10  cartridge  shell,  after  the  manner  of  a  milk- 
measuring  dipper. 


CHAPTER  VI 

DETERMINATION  OF  BACTERIA  IN  MILK 

Bacteria  as  a  measure  of  dirt  in  milk. — Since  a 
chief  source  of  contamination  of  milk  with  bacteria  is 
in  dirty  surroundings,  the  relative  number  of  bacteria 
in  milk  has  come  to  be  largely  accepted  as  an  index 
of  its  quality  with  regard  to  cleanliness.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  in  certain  of  the  higher  grades  of  the  market 
milk,  notably  in  "certified  milk,"  the  standard  of 
quality  is  fixed  by  the  number  of  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter  found  in  the  milk,  and  if  the  number  so 
found  exceeds  a  certain  amount  the  milk  cannot  be 
graded  as  "certified."  For  these  reasons  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  frequent  determinations  of  the  bacterial 
content  of  milk.  This  is  best  and  most  accurately 
done  by  a  trained  bacteriologist  in  a  well-appointed 
and  equipped  laboratory.  However,  the  simple  deter- 
mination of  the  number  of  bacteria  in  a  given  amount 
of  milk  is  not  a  difficult  operation,  nor  does  it  require 
a  very  elaborate  or  expensive  equipment.  There  are 
reasons  why  a  dairyman,  particularly  one  producing 
certified  milk,  should  have  the  means  at  hand  for 
making  his  own  determination  of  the  bacterial  content 
of  his  milk,  the  chief  reason  being  that  it  enables 
him  to  control  the  conditions  and  work  from  day  to 

(125) 


126  Milk   and  Its   Products 

day,  so  as  to  check  carelessness  in  any  place,  and 
materially  reduce  the  chances  for  contamination. 

The  outline  of  methods  and  apparatus  given  here- 
with will  enable  anyone  with  a  little  skill  and  inge- 
nuity to  make  bacterial  determinations  sufficiently 
accurate  for  purposes  of  control  in  the  production  of 
high-grade  milk. 

The  laboratory. — In  fitting  out  a  small  laboratory 
for  the  determination  of  bacteria  in  milk,  much  can 
be  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  individual.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  the  work  done  in  a  place  as  free  from 
dust  and  other  contamination  as  possible.  So,  if  the 
room  has  to  be  used  also  for  other  purposes,  it  is  well 
to  shut  off  or  enclose  with  glass  a  small  portion  to  be 
used  for  this  work  alone,  and  in  which  the  sterile 
glassware,  media  and  water  may  be  kept,  so  that 
everything  is  ready  and  convenient  for  use  at  any  time. 

Apparatus. — In  choosing  a  sterilizer  for  glassware, 
any  kind  of  an  oven  fitted  with  a  thermometer,  and 
in  which  a  temperature  of  150°  C.  can  be  maintained, 
will  do.  For  sterilizing  media  and  water,  an  auto- 
clave, that  is,  a  steam  sterilizer  which  is  able  to  main- 
tain a  pressure  of  at  least  ten  pounds  per  square  inch, 
is  most  convenient;  there  are  also  on  the  market 
"high  altitude"  or  Denver  cookers  that  are  satisfactory. 
If  neither  of  these  is  available,  steamers  or  simply 
boiling  water  may  be  used.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that,  unless  pressure  is  used,  a  greater  period 
of  heat  is  necessary,  and  that  with  substances  such  as 
gelatin  and  milk,  which  will  not  stand  such  treatment, 
the  intermittent  method  of  sterilization  must  be  used. 


Preparation   of  Media  127 

The  lists  of  glassware  necessary  for  plating  one 
sample  of  milk  and  for  preparing  one  liter  of  medium, 
together  with  the  necessary  materials  and  apparatus, 
are  given  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  the  actual  amounts 
being  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  individual.  They 
may  be  readily  secured  from  any  firm  dealing  in  such 
materials. 

Some  sort  of  an  incubator  is  necessary.  Very  satis- 
factory incubators  are  specially  built  for  bacteriolog- 
ical purposes,  but,  if  it  is  necessary  to  economize,  it 
is  possible  to  convert  a  poultry  incubator  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  a  home-made  incubator  may  be  cheaply  and 
simply  built  by  anyone  with  a  little  ingenuity.  An 
asbestos -lined  box  fitted  with  an  electric  light  and 
thermostat  is  very  satisfactory.  The  one  factor  neces- 
sary is  a  constant  temperature  of  37°  C.  or  98.6°  F. 

Media.— -It  is  possible  to  obtain  agar  or  gelatine 
already  prepared  from  various  bacteriological  labora- 
tories. If,  however,  it  is  found  necessary  to  make 
the  medium,  the  following  directions  may  be  used: 
As  a  basis  for  this  medium  use  nutrient  bouillon,  or 
broth.  This  may  be  made  either  from  the  ground 
beef  or  beef  extract.  Directions  for  making  the  bouil- 
lon from  ground  beef  are  found  in  Moore's  Laboratory 
Directions  for  Beginners  in  Bacteriology.  It  is  much 
easier  to  use  beef  extract  and,  for  general  purposes, 
entirely  satisfactory. 

Measure  out  the  following: 

Water        1  liter 

Liebig's  Extract  of  Beef  .   .   . 3  grams 

Peptone  (Wittes)      10  grams 


128  Milk   and   Its    Products 

Place  in  the  agate  cooking -pan  and  weigh.  Dissolve 
carefully  at  a  temperature  not  over  150°  F.  (60°  C.) 

It  has  been  found  that  organisms  develop  best  at 
a  reaction  slightly  but  distinctly  acid.  That  is,  the 
media  should  be  -\-  1  per  cent  to  phenol  phthalein.  In 
order  to  standardize  the  media  to  this  degree  of 
acidity,  take  5  c.  c.  of  bouillon,  and  place  in  a  por- 
celain evaporating  dish  or  white  cup  with  about  45  c.  c. 
of  warm  water.  Add  a  few  drops  of  phenol  phthalein 
(8  per  cent  dry  in  50  per  cent  alcohol).  This  is  a 
solution  which  is  colorless  when  acid,  but  tinted  pink 
when  alkaline.  Stir  and  add  to  the  solution  in  the 
cup  enough  of  the  twentieth  normal  sodium  hydroxid 
solution  from  a  burette  to  give  it  a  clear,  bright  pink 
color.  This  is  the  amount  needed  to  neutralize  5  c.  c. 
of  the  bouillon.  In  order  to  bring  the  entire  amount 
to  +1  per  cent,  subtract  1  from  the  amount  of  twen- 
tieth normal  sodium  hydroxide  used;  multiply  this  by 
the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  bouillon,  and 
divide  by  100.  This  result  represents  the  amount  of 
normal  sodium  hydroxide  to  be  added.  After  adding 
the  normal  hydroxide,'  test  the  reaction  again.  It 
should  take  1  c.  c.  of  twentieth  normal  sodium  hydrox- 
ide to  bring  a  pink  color  with  5  c.  c.  of  bouillon. 
This  process  is  called  titration. 

After  obtaining  the  desired  acidity,  boil  briskly  for 
twenty  minutes,  restore  weight,  with  distilled  water, 
cool  and  filter  through  filter  paper  into  sterile  flasks. 
The  bouillon  is  now  ready  to  be  made  into  either  gela- 
tine or  agar,  or  it  can  be  sterilized  and  set  aside 
until  needed.  (See  directions  for  sterilizing  media.) 


Sterilization   of  Media  129 

Lactose  agar. — To  1  liter  of  bouillon  add  1.5  per 
cent  of  agar  (15  grams)-  Allow  the  agar  to  soak  for 
one-half  hour.  Record  weight,  then  add  10  grams  of 
lactose.  Steam  for  20  minutes,  cool  to  60°  C. ;  titrate 
to  +  1  per  cent  acidity,  add  the  white  of  an  egg 
shaken  up  in  30  c.  c.  of  water  and  steam  for  20  to  30 
minutes;  then  boil  until  clear,  taking  care  not  to 
burn  it.  Restore  weight  by  adding  water,  then  filter 
through  cheese-cloth  and  absorbent  cotton.  The  agar 
should  be  clear  and  of  a  yellowish  straw  color.  Fill 
the  test  tubes,  10  c.  c.  to  a  tube,  plug  them  with 
cotton  and  then  sterilize  them. 

Gelatin. — To  one  liter  of  bouillon  add  12  per  cent 
of  a  good  grade  of  gelatin.  Weigh  the  dish  and 
material.  Dissolve  the  gelatin  and  titrate  to  1  per 
cent  acidity,  boil  15  minutes,  cool,  add  the  white  of 
an  egg  shaken  with  30  c.  c.  of  water,  boil  again  for 
15  minutes,  restore  weight,  and  filter  through  cheese- 
cloth and  absorbent  cotton.  Place  in  test  tubes,  10 
c.  c.  per  tube,  plug  and  sterilize. 

Lactose  gelatin. — Prepare  as  for  gelatin  in  previous 
paragraph,  using  15  per  cent  gelatin  and  1  per  cent 
lactose  (milk  sugar).  In  filling  the  tubes,  use  exactly 
8  c.  c.,  if  litmus  is  to  be  added,  otherwise  10  c.  c.  per 
tube;  plug  and  sterilize  as  before. 

Litmus. — Soak  100  grams  of  litmus  cubes  in  600 
c.  c.  of  water  for  24  hours.  Filter  through  filter 
paper  and  make  up  to  original  volume.  Titrate  the 
litmus  solution  so  that  the  acidity  will  be  the  same 
as  for  media,  viz.:  +1  per  cent.  As  it  is  too  alka- 


130  Milk   and   Its   Products 

line,  titrate  against  one -twentieth  normal  hydrochloric 
acid,  using  litmus  as  its  own  indicator.  (Litmus  is 
blue  when  alkaline  and  red  when  acid.)  The  neutral 
point  will  be  recognized  ^by  the  blue  solution  turning 
reddish.  If  the  neutral  point  of  the  solution  using 
phenol  phthalein  as  an  indicator  is  zero,  then  the 
neutral  point  using  litmus  as  an  indicator  would 
require  2.5  c.  c..more  acid.  Therefore,  in  order  to 
secure  1  per  cent  acidity  to  phenol  phthalein,  5  c.  c. 
of  the  litmus  solution  would  require  1.5  c.  c.  of 
twentieth  normal  hydrochloric  acid.  As  the  litmus 
solution  is  always  alkaline,  it  will  require  normal  acid; 
the  amount  can  be  determined  in  the  same  way  as  in 
titrating  media.  Sterilize  litmus  the  same  as  water. 

Normal  sodium  hydroxid  (NaOH)  and  normal  hydro- 
chloric acid  (HC1). — These  solutions  had  best  be  bought 
from  dealers.  To  make  twentieth  normal  solutions,  one 
part  of  the  normal  is  added  to  19  parts  of  distilled  water. 

Sterilization. — In  bacteriological  work,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  all  glassware,  utensils  and  media  sterile, 
that  is,  absolutely  free  from  organic  life.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  media,  bottles,  flasks,  etc.,  must  be  kept 
plugged,  otherwise  they  become  contaminated.  There- 
fore, if  a  flask  or  bottle  of  media  or  water  is  opened,  it 
must  be  resterilized  before  using  again.  The  methods 
of  sterilizing  vary  for  the  materials  to  be  sterilized. 

Cleaning  glassware. — All  glassware  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  with  some  good  soap  or  soap  powder, 
rinsed  in  clear  water,  and  allowed  to  drain.  When 
dry,  the  test  tubes,  pipettes,  flasks  and  graduated 
cylinders  are  ready  to  be  plugged.  With  the  forceps, 


Cleaning   the    Glassware  131 

pull  off  a  piece  of  cotton  of  sufficient  size  to  fit  into 
the  opening  of  the  article  to  be  plugged  without  dan- 
ger of  falling  out  or  of  sticking.  Put  the  pipettes  into 
glass  tubing  which  has  been  cut  into  lengths  which 
will  hold  the  pipettes,  then  plug  firmly  both  ends  of 
the  tube  or  case.  After  plugging,  the  articles  are 
ready  for  sterilizing.  Metal  boxes  holding  a  number 
of  pipettes  may  be  used  in  place  of  glass  tubes;  and 
when  much  plating  is  to  be  done,  there  is  economy 
of  work  and  time  in  the  practice,  but  there  is  greater 
possibility  of  the  pipettes  becoming  contaminated. 
Place  them  with  the  petri  dishes  and  glass  bottles  in 
the  hot-air  sterilizer  or  oven.  Tip  the  stoppers  of  the 
glass  bottles  back,  to  prevent  exploding.  In  many 
laboratories,  dilution  bottles  without  glass  stoppers  are 
used,  plugs  of  cotton  being  substituted.  This  custom 
permits  the  use  of  cheaper  bottles.  These  should  be 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  150°  C.  for  one  hour,  or 
until  the  cotton  plugs  are  slightly  browned. 

Water. — It  is  convenient  to  sterilize  water  in  the 
liter  flasks.  Fill  the  flasks  three -fourths  full  and 
plug  them  with  cotton.  If  an  autoclave  is  available, 
sterilize  water  for  one  hour  at  15  pounds  pressure. 
Otherwise,  place  the  flask  in  boiling  water,  or  steam 
and  hold  for  one  and  a  half  to  two  hours. 

Bouillon,  gelatin  and  agar. — Media  can  be  steril- 
ized in  an  autoclave  for  20  minutes  at  10  pounds  pres- 
sure, or  the  intermittent  method  may  be  used.  In 
sterlizing  by  this  method,  the  flasks  or  tubes  of  media 
are  steamed  or  placed  in  boiling  water  for  20  minutes; 
then  left  at  room  temperature  for  24  hours,  and 


132  Milk   and  Its   Products 

steamed  again  for  20  minutes  after  the  material  has 
reached  the  temperature  of  steam.  The  third  day  they 
are  steamed  again  for  20  minutes. 

Procedure  for  plating. — Wipe  off  the  desk  or  table 
with  5  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution.  Shake  thor- 
oughly twenty-five  times,  the  sample  of  milk.  Unless 
the  bacterial  count  of  the  sample  is  nearly  known,  it 
is  well  to  make  three  dilutions,  with  two  plates  per 
dilution  (six  plates  in  all).  The  dilution  should  be 
large  enough  so  that  not  more  than  one  or  two  hun- 
dred colonies  will  develop  on  the  petri  dish.  Thus,  in 
plating  fresh  milk,  a  dilution  of  1:100,1:200  and 
1  :  1000  may  be  used.  To  make  the  1  :  1000  dilution, 
measure  out  with  a  sterile  pipette  (care  should  be  taken 
in  drawing  out  the  pipette  from  the  case  that  the 
point  touches  nothing  but  the  milk,  and,  if  many  pi- 
pettes are  kept  in  a  metal  case,  each  pipette  should  be 
passed  through  a  flame  before  using  it)  1  c.  c.  of 
milk,  and  put  it  in  a  sterile  bottle  containing  99  c.  c. 
of  the  sterilized  water.  Shake  this  thoroughly.  With 
another  pipette,  place  ,1  c.  c.  of  the  solution  in  a 
petri  dish,  being  careful  to  raise  the  cover  of  the  petri 
dish  only  high  enough  to  introduce  the  mouth  of  the 
pipette.  Five-tenths  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  this  solu- 
tion would  give  a  dilution  of  1  :  200,  while  .1  would  be 
1 :  1,000.  If  higher  dilutions  are  needed,  more  bottles 
may  be  used;  for  instance,  if  a  dilution  of  1  :  1,000,000 
is  wanted,  arrange  two  bottles  each  with  99  c.  c.  of 
water.  Place  1  c.  c.  of  milk  in  the  first,  shake  thor- 
oughly, take  1  c.  c.  of  this  dilution  and  place  in  the 
second.  This  is  then  ready  to  transfer  to  the  plate. 


Plating   and    Counting  133 

Checks. — With  a  sterile  pipette,  place  1  c.  c.  of 
the  dilution  water  in  a  sterile  plate,  and  add  the  usual 
amount  of  media.  Also  pour  10  c.  c.  of  media 
into  a  sterile,  empty  petri  dish.  If  litmus  is  used, 
make  a  third  check  with  2  c.  c.  of  litmus  and  10  c.  c. 
of  the  media.  In  this  way  the  state  of  the  material 
may  be  determined.  The  following  scheme  from  the 
Iowa  Bacteriological  Laboratory  Report  will  be  of 
value  in  estimating  dilutions: 

After  the  diluted  milk  is  in  the  petri  dish,  if  the  litmus  is 
wanted,  add  2  c.  c.  with  a  sterile  pipette.  If  not  desired,  this 
may  be  omitted.  Melt  the  tubes  of  agar  or  gelatin,  cool  and 
maintain  at  a  temperature  of  40°  C.  Finally,  add  10  c.  c.  of  the 
nutrient  media,  either  agar  or  gelatin  as  desired,  being  careful  to 
pass  the  mouth  of  the  tube  through  a  flame  before  pouring  it. 
Give  the  dish  a  revolving  motion,  to  mix  the  diluted  milk  and 
media,  and  then  allow  it  to  harden.  Agar  should  be  incubated 
at  37°  C.  for  forty-eight  hours,  while  gelatin  needs  a  temperature 
of  20°  C.  for  five  days.  When  ready  to  count,  place  the  petri  dish 
over  a  counting-plate  and,  with  a  hand  lens,  count  the  number  of 
colonies.  If  a  counting-plate  is  not  available,  lines  may  be  made 
across  the  bottom  of  the  plate  with  a  blue  pencil,  for  marking 
glass  to  aid  in  counting.  Each  colony  represents  an  original 
organism.  Multiply  the  number  of  colonies  by  the  dilution,  and 
the  result  is  the  approximate  number  of  organisms  in  the  sample. 
Repeat  this  with  six  plates,  and  take  the  average  of  them  as  the 
final  count. 

GLASSWARE    NECESSARY   FOR   PLATING    ONE    SAMPLE    OF    MILK 

9  petri  dishes.  1  250  c.  c.  glass-stoppered 

3  1  c.  c.  (straight)  pipettes.  bottle. 

1  2  c.  c.  pipette.  1  graduated  cylinder  100  c.  c. 

1  liter  flask  (water).  5  feet  glass  tubing,  width  10  m. 

1  250  c.  c.  flask  (litmus).  m.  or  metal  box. 

2  150  c.  c.  glass-stoppered  9  test  tubes  (Board  of  Health) 

bottles.  1    counting  plate. 


134  Milk   and  Its   Products 

GLASSWAEE    NECESSAKY    FOR    MAKING    ONE    LITER    OF    MEDIA 

1  thermometer     (Centigrade          2   funnels,  diameter,  15  c.  m. 

scale).  1    flask  (liter). 

2  burettes — 50   c.  c.   graduated      1   5  c.  c.  pipette. 

to  .1  c.  c.  2  agate  pails. 

APPARATUS 
C  Steam  sterilizer. 
-{ Autoclave. 
I  Hot  air  sterilizer. 

Or, 

f  Steam  cooker  or  high  altitude  cooker 

and 
I  Kitchen  oven. 

2  4-quart  aluminium  or  agate  kettles. 

1  balances  or  scales  (metric)  sensitive  to  grams. 

6  wire  baskets. 

1  hand  lens. 

1  Bunsen  burner  or  alcohol  lamp. 

1  forceps. 

MATERIALS 

Beef  extract  (Liebig's).  Litmus  (cubes). 

Peptone  (Wittes).  Cotton  (absorbent). 

NaOH  (normal).  Cotton,  common. 

HC1  (normal).  Phenol  phthalein. 

Agar  (threads).  Alcohol. 

Gelatine  (Gold  Label).  Filter  paper — diameter  45  c.  m. 

Lactose  (pulverized). 


CHAPTER   VII 

MARKET    MILK 

IN  GENERAL,  any  conditions  which  make  milk 
of  better  quality  for  manufacture,  also  make  it  of 
better  quality  to  be  consumed  as  milk.  These 
conditions  are  not  only  those  which  have  to  do  with 
the  composition  of  the  milk,  but  any  other  influences, 
as  feed,  health,  care  of  the  cows,  or  conditions  of 
cleanliness.  Several  conditions  affect  the  quality  of 
milk  intended  for  consumption  as  such.  In  the 
first  place,  it  must  be  of  high  quality  so  far  as 
the  composition  is  concerned.  Second,  it  must  be 
secreted  from  healthy  cows,  fed  on  pure  food  and 
kept  in  clean  stables.  Third,  it  must  be  so  treated 
that  the  fat  does  not  readily  separate  from  the  other 
solids,  and  it  must  not  readily  undergo  fermentation. 
Last  of  all,  it  must  be  clean. 

Cleanliness. — Since  cleanliness  is  equally  impor- 
tant, whether  the  milk  is  intended  for  consumption 
or  manufacture,  it  is  well  to  take  this  up  in  detail 
first.  All  vessels  used  to  contain  milk  should  be 
heavily  tinned ;  pails,  cans,  and  the  like,  that  are 
of  the  kind  called  ironclad  are  preferable  on  ac- 
count of  durability.  An  efficient  means  of  attain- 
ing cleanliness  is  in  avoiding  seams  in  the  utensils. 

(135) 


136  Milk   and   Its   Products 

This  is  secured  by  the  use  of  the  pressed  or  seam- 
less vessels  wherever  possible,  and  when  it  is  not 
possible  to  use  these,  by  taking  care  that  the  joints 
are  completely  and  smoothly  filled  with  solder.  In 
ordinary  pails  as  found  in  the  market  this  is  never 
done,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance 
to  the  purchaser  that  all  such  seams  be  resoldered 
before  using.  The  tinware  should  be  kept  bright 
and  perfect.  So  soon  as  any  rust  spots  make  their 
appearance,  an  entrance  is  given  into  the  soft  iron 
for  germs  and  small  particles  of  decaying  matter, 
which  are  in  consequence  removed  with  much  more 
difficulty.  Milk  is  much  more  easily  removed  from 
vessels  when  it  has  not  been  allowed  to  become 
dried  upon  their  surface.  If  rinsed  as  soon  as 
emptied,  tin  vessels  may  be  much  more  easily  cleaned 
than  if  allowed  to  stand  for  several  hours.  For 
such  rinsing,  lukewarm  water  is  much  preferable  to 
cold  or  hot  water.  Cold  water  does  not  so  readily 
unite  with  the  milk  as  warm  water,  and  hot  water, 
by  coagulating  the  albumin,  may  cause  the  milk  to 
stick  or  "cook  on"  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  The 
process  of  cleaning  vessels  that  have  contained  milk 
should  be  :  First,  to  rinse  them  thoroughly  in  luke- 
warm water ;  second,  to  wash  them  thoroughly  with 
the  aid  of  some  good  soap  or  alkali,  in  water  as 
hot  as  the  hand  will  bear ;  third,  to  thoroughly 
rinse  in  hot  water ;  fourth,  to  expose  to  live 
steam  from  one  to  two  minutes  ;  fifth,  exposure,  if 
possible,  in  bright  sunlight  from  two  to  three  hours. 
With  these  precautions,  not  only  will  the  tinware  be 


Methods   of  Securing    Clean   Milk  137 

kept  clean  and  bright,  but  no  germs  will  find  a 
resting  place  in  the  crevices.  The  use  of  much 
strong  alkali  is  inadvisable,  as  it  serves  to  cloud 
and  tarnish  the  tin,  giving  it  a  dull  appearance.  If 
the  vessels  are  exposed  to  steam  until  they  are 
thoroughly  hot,  and  then  placed  in  such  position 
that  they  will  drain,  no  other  drying  will  be  necessary. 
Having  taken  every  precaution  that  the  vessels 
are  thoroughly  cleansed,  the  prevention  of  access 
of  dirt  to  the  milk  in  process  of  milking  is  impor- 
tant. To  this  end,  the  body,  especially  the  lower 
part  of  the  belly  and  udder,  of  the  cow  should  be 
thoroughly  brushed  and  preferably  dampened  just 
before  milking.  The  hands  of  the  milker  should 
be  clean  and  his  clothes  free  from  dust,  and  the 
air  of  the  stable  should  be  free  from  dust.  If 
the  stable  floor  is  dampened,  it  will  not  only  aid 
in  this  respect,  but  in  summer  time  will  materi- 
ally reduce  the  temperature  of  hot  and  overcrowded 
stables.  With  these  precautions,  we  may  expect  to 
secure  milk  containing  a  minimum  amount  of  dirt;* 
but  with  all  these  precautions,  more  or  less  dirt  will 
find  access  to  it.  And  immediately  after  milk- 
ing, as  much  as  possible  of  this  dirt  should  be 
removed  by  at  once  straining  the  milk  through  a 
brass  wire  strainer  of  not  less  than  fifty  meshes  to 
the  inch  and  three  or  four  thicknesses  of  loosely 
woven  cotton  or  woolen  cloth.  The  cloth  strainer 
not  only  removes  fine  particles  of  dirt,  but  also 

*These  directions  will  serve  to  secure  milk  that  is  reasonably  clean.  So 
much  importance  is  now  placed  on  extreme  cleanliness  and  there  is  so  large  a 
demand  for  the  extremely  high  grades  of  milk  known  as  "certified,"  that  a 
chapter  on  certified  milk  has  been  added  to  this  edition. 


138 


Milk    and   Its    Products 


entangles  a  considerable  number  of  germs,  and  hence 
these  strainers  should  be  cleansed  with  great  care, 
and  should  be  frequently  renewed. 

Treatment  after  drawing. —  So  soon  as  the  milk  is 
drawn,  it  should  be  rapidly  brought  to  a  temperature 
slightly  below  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  While  it 
is  being  cooled  it  should  be  stirred  to  prevent  the 
cream  from  rising,  and  in  milk  that  has  been  cooled 
in  this  way  there  will  be  comparatively  little  tendency 
afterward  for  the  cream  to  separate  from  the  milk. 
Milk  so  treated  is  in  an  ideal  condition  for  consump- 
tion, even  though  the  consumer  may  consider  the 
quality  poor  because  of  the  slight  tendency  of  the 
cream  to  form  on  the  surface. 

Aeration  of  milk. — Milk  when  drawn  from  the  cow 
contains  a  certain  amount  of  dissolved  gases.  These 

gases    contain  more    or   less 
of  what  is  known  as  animal 
odor,   the    amount    of     this 
odor  depending  very  largely 
upon  the  physical  condition 
of   the  animal    at    the  time 
the  milk  is   drawn.       Some- 
times   the     amount    is   very 
slight    and    scarcely    notice- 
able, at   other  times  it  is  so 
great  as   to  be  extremely  of- 
fensive.      These    gases    and 
the    accompanying   odor    are 
easily     removed     from     the 

Fig.  16.   "Star"  milk  cooler  and  .„        ,  «       ,, 

aerator.  milk    by    exposure    of     the 


Good   Influence    of  Aeration 


139 


milk  to  the  air  during  the  process  of  cooling,  and  to 
this  extent  aeration  of  the  milk  is  an  advantage. 
Various  forms  of  aerators*  and  combined  aerators  and 
coolers  have  been  devised,  many  of  which  are  simple 
and  effective,  and  the  best  results  follow  their  use. 
In  order  to  secure  these  results  by 
aeration,  however,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  apparatus  used  for  aeration 
should  expose  the  milk  thoroughly 
to  the  air,  should  not  be  cumber- 
some, and  should  be  simple  and  ea- 
sily cleaned;  moreover,  the  process 
of  aeration  should  always  take  place 
in  the  purest  atmosphere  possible. 

Delivery  of  the  milk.  —  In  ordi- 
nary practice  in  the  smaller  towns 
and  villages,  and  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  larger  cities  also,  the  tor- 
milk  is  placed  in  cans  in  which  it  is  transported 
from  the  dairy,  and  is  measured  out  in  small  quan- 
tities to  each  customer  from  the  cans  in  which  it  was 
originally  placed.  Where  care  is  taken  to  cool  'the 
milk,  as  described,  and  during  the  process  of  serving 
the  customers  to  keep  the  contents  of  the  cans  well 
stirred,  substantial  justice  is  done  each  individual  cus- 
tomer in  the  matter  of  giving  him  the  due  proportion 
of  cream  and  skimmed  milk.  This  has  been  well 
shown  in  a  trial  made  at  the  Cornell  University 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station*  several  years  ago, 


*  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  20. 


140  Milk   and   Its   Products 

the    interesting   results  of   which  are   quoted   below  in 
full  detail  : 

To  determine  just  how  much  variation  there  is  in  the  fat 
of  milk  served  to  the  different  patrons  of  a  route  by  dipping, 
a  member  of  the  Station  staff  accompanied  a  milkman  as  he 
went  upon  his  route,  and  as  the  milk  was  about  to  be 
served  to  various  patrons,  took  samples  for  analysis.  The 
dipper,  such  as  is  ordinarily  used  by  milkmen,  was  provided 
with  a  long  handle,  so  that  it  rested  on  the  bottom  of  the 
can  when  not  in  use.  The  milk  was  not  stirred  except  by  the 
motion  of  the  wagon  and  the  raising  of  the  dipper.  Twelve 
samples  were  taken,  and  yielded  to  analysis  the  following  per- 
centages of  fat  : 

No.     1  ...  4.52) 

2  .    .    .  4.43  ^       Taken  from  Can  A. 

3  4.41  J 

4  .      4.32) 

5  ...  3.85  [•       Taken  from  Can  B. 

6  ...  5.05 J 


7  .      4.15 

8  ...  4.02  \-       Taken  from  Can  C. 

9  .        .4. 


L15) 

:.02    V 

k05j 

.  4.94) 

.  4.78  [ 
.  4.85J 


10 

11  ...  4.78  }•       Taken  from  Can  D. 

12  . 


The  milk  was  contained  in  four  30 -quart  cans,  marked 
A,  B,  C  and  D.  The  samples  were  taken  as  follows: 

No.  1. — Taken  from  A  at  5.50  a.  m. ,  within  a  few  rods 
of  starting. 

No.  2.  —  Taken  when  the  milk  in  A  was  half  gone,  at 
6.10.  Seventeen  dips  had  been  made  since  No.  1  was  taken, 
and  three -fourths  of  a  mile  traveled. 

No.  3.  — Taken  from  the  bottom  of  A  at  6.20.  Twelve  dips 
had  been  made  since  No.  2  was  taken,  and  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  traveled. 

No.  4.  — Taken  from  the  top  of  B  at  6.10,  three-fourths  of 
a  mile  from  starting. 


Variations  in  Quality  in  Dipping  from  Cans     141 

No.  5.  —  Taken  from  the  middle  of  B  at  7.20.  Six  quarts 
had  been  added  to  B  at  6.35,  and  two  and  one -fourth  miles 
traveled  between  taking  samples  4  and  5. 

No.  6.  —  Taken  from  the  bottom  of  B  at  7.55.  One  and 
three-quarter  miles  traveled  since  taking  sample  5. 

No.  7.  —Taken  from  the  top  of  C  at  6.20,  one  and  one- 
half  miles  from  the  start. 

No.  8. — Taken  from  the  middle  of  C  at  6.50.  One  mile 
had  been  traveled  since  taking  No.  7.  At  6.35  six  quarts  re- 
maining in  the  bottom  of  A,  and  about  an  equal  quantity 
bought  of  another  dealer,  had  been  added  to  C. 

No.  9.  —  Taken  from  the  bottom  of  C  at  7.00.  Fifteen 
dips  had  been  made,  and  a  half  mile  traveled,  since  8  was 
taken. 

No.    10.  — Taken    from  the  top    of  D  at   7.50. 

No.  11. — Taken  from  the  middle  of  D  at  a  time  when 
the  wagon  had  stood  still  for  four  minutes,  with  the  dipper 
resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  can.  Time,  8.15,  and  one  mile 
traveled  since  10  was  taken. 

No.    12.  — Taken   from   the    bottom    of   D. 

A   second    and   third   trial    gave    similar    results. 

SECOND     TRIAL. 

a.            b.  Average. 

Sample  1    ...  4.86  4.78  4.82       (Before  starting.) 

Sample  2    ...  4.71  4.71       (Top  of  can.) 

SampleB    .    .    .4.82  4.82       (One -third  gone.) 

Sample  4    .    .    .4.83  4.74  4.78       (Two -thirds  gone.) 

Samples    .    .    .4.73  4.82  4.77       (Bottom  of  can.) 

THIRD    TRIAL. 

a.            b.  Average. 

Sample  1    .    .      4.20  4.16  4.18       (Top  of  can.) 

Sample  2    .    .    .4.11  4.00  4.05       (One-fourth  gone.) 

Samples    .    .    .4.13  4.01  4.07       ( One  -half  gone. ) 

Sample  4    .    .    .4.15  4.04  4.09      (Three -fourths gone) 

SampleS    .    .    .4.01  4.00  4.00       (Bottom  of  can. ) 


142 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


These  results  were  abundantly  confirmed  by  a   sim- 
ilar series  made  by  Dean  in  Canada.* 

The  removal  of  the  covers  of  the  cans  in  the  dusty 
and  dirty  streets  always  results  in  considerable  contam- 
ination of  the  milk,  hence  the  practice  of  putting  the 
milk  into  bottles  upon  the  farm  and 
delivering  these  bottles  intact  to  the 
consumer,  has  rapidly  increased  since 
its  introduction,  some  ten  years  ago, 
and  is  now  in  almost  universal  use. 
When  the  bottles  are  used,  the  milk 
should  be  put  into  them  as  soon  as  it 
is  drawn,  strained  and  cooled;  they 
should  then  be  sealed  and  kept  in  a 
cool  place  until  ready  for  delivery. 
This  method  of  delivery,  although 
it  entails  a  greater  expense  in  outfit 
and  transportation  and  a  considerable 
loss  from  breakage,  is  much  to  be 
preferred  to  the  old  manner. 

Milk  so  handled,,  and  kept  at  a 
temperature  between  45°  and  50° 
F.,  should  be  in  good  condition 
sixty  hours  after  it  is  drawn.  Its  life  can  be  pro- 
longed by  pasteurization,  and  the  liability  to  trans- 
mission of  diseases  through  the  milk  at  the  same 
time  reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  whether  pasteuriza- 
tion should  be  relied  upon  for  these  purposes  is 
still  somewhat  of  an  open  question.  In  so  far  as 
immunity  from  diseases  which  may  be  present  in  the 


18.      "Common 

Sense  "  milk  shipping 
bottle. 


*  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Bulletin  No.  66. 


Healthfulness   of  Skimmed  Milk  143 

cows  is  concerned,  official  inspection  of  the  herds 
is  undoubtedly  a  greater  safeguard  than  dependence 
upon  pasteurization  or  sterilization ;  and  so  far  as 
the  liability  of  transmission  of  other  diseases  is  con- 
cerned, the  milkman  who  is  careless  in  regard  to 
the  cleansing  of  his  utensils  would  quite  as  likely  be 
careless  in  the  pasteurization  or  sterilization  process, 
so  that  reliability  of  the  milkman  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  purity  of  the  milk  supply,  no  matter 
what  other  precautions  are  taken. 

Bad  flavors  in  milk. — Milk  may  be  unfit  for  con- 
sumption for  reasons  other  than  the  presence  of 
dirt  or  infection  with  bacterial  germs.  The  cow 
herself  is  often  responsible  for  bad  flavors  in  milk. 
When  lactation  is  far  advanced  the  milk  often  has 
a  disagreeable  salty  taste.  In  extreme  cases  it  may 
even  be  described  as  acrid  or  bitter.  While  there 
is  nothing  particularly  unwholesome  about  such  milk, 
its  bad  flavor  makes  it  unfit  for  food,  and  if  the 
cow  is  within  two  months  of  calving,  she  should  be 
allowed  to  go  dry  at  once.  If  the  time  before  calv- 
ing is  longer  than  this,  the  bad  flavor  may  often  be 
remedied  by  taking  care  that  the  cow  has  plenty  of 
succulent  food,  as  roots  or  silage,  and  particularly 
that  the  proportion  of  dry,  fibrous  food  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum. 

Digestive  disorders  of  any  sort  in  the  cow  are 
frequently  accompanied  by  strong  flavors  in  the 
milk.  These  flavors  are  not  to  be  attributed  to  the 
food,  but  to  the  bad  condition  of  the  animal,  and 
they  normally  tend  to  disappear  when  the  digestive 


144  Milk   and   Its   Products 

organs  regain  their  tone.  Disorders  of  this  sort 
are  especially  likely  to  occur  when  cows  that  have 
been  poorly  fed  during  the  winter  are  suddenly  turned 
on  fresh  rank  pasture  in  the  spring. 

Quality  of  milk  for  consumption. — The  fat  is  the 
most  variable  and  the  most  valuable  constituent  of 
the  milk,  so  that  milk  is  ordinarily  considered  to  be 
of  value  for  human  food  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  fat  it  contains,  but  where  it  is  to  be  used  as 
a  food  in  large  quantities,  the  fat  may  frequently 
be  present  in  too  large  quantities  for  the  digestion 
of  many  persons.  Milk  containing  about  4  per 
cent  of  fat  is  probably  an  ideal  food  for  the  gen- 
eral mass  of  human  beings.  If  there  is  above  5 
per  cent  of  fat  the  other  solids  are  somewhat  out 
of  proportion,  and  many  are  likely  to  have  trouble 
with  their  digestion  from  using  large  amounts  of 
such  milk.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  less 
than  3  per  cent  of  fat,  the  casein  and  other  solids 
are  in  too  great  proportion  to  the  fat,  and  are  less 
readily  digested.  The  question  of  the  healthfulnese 
of  milk  from  which  a  large  part  of  tne  fat  has  been 
removed  is  one  frequently  discussed.  The  removal  of 
the  fat  does  not  thereby  in  any  way  injure  the  other 
solids ;  they  are  still  there,  and  still  as  useful  for 
food  as  before  the  fat  was  removed,  only  in  con- 
suming such  milk  as  food  the  fat  must  be  supplied 
in  some  other  way.  For  the  person  of  vigorous 
digestion,  who  for  reasons  of  economy  desires  to 
supply  the  fat  required  by  his  system  in  some 
cheaper  form  than  that  of  milk  fat,  skimmed  milk  is 


Legal   Standards  for  Milk  145 

a  wholesome  and  nutritious  article  of  diet,  which 
furnishes  to  the  system  almost  the  same  sort  of 
nutrients  that  lean  meat,  eggs,  or  foods  of  like  na- 
ture do,  and  no  one  should  be  debarred  by  legisla- 
tive or  municipal  enactment  from  using  such  an 
article  of  food  if  he  so  desires. 

Control  of  milk  supply. — Since  milk  is  so  extremely 
variable  in  quality,  and  is  so  easily  adulterated ; 
since  often  considerable  variations  are  not  readily 
detected ;  above  all,  because  the  amount  of  milk 
used  by  any  given  person  or  family  is  compara- 
tively small,  the  consumer  of  milk  is  almost 
wholly  at  the  mercy  of  the  producer  and  dealer,  and 
must  rely  for  a  good  product  very  largely  upon  their 
honor.  The  state  has  recognized  this,  and  to  pre- 
vent imposition  by  unscrupulous  people,  has  in 
various  ways  sought  to  regulate  the  sale  of  milk  an*d 
like  products.  The  chief  means  used  has  been  to 
establish  arbitrary  standards  of  quality,  and  to  subject 
to  fine  those  dealers  whose  goods  should  be  found 
to  be  below  the  required  standard.  The  standards 
established  by  various  states  and  municipalities  have 
varied  widely.  From  2.5  to  3.7  per  cent  of  fat, 
and  from  11.5  to  13  per  cent  of  total  solids,  have 
been  the  minimum  requirements.  (See  Appendix  C.) 
These  standards,  while  efficient  in  securing  honest 
dealing  where  they  are  rigidly  enforced,  nevertheless 
may  work  injustice,  so  far  as  the  honesty  of  the 
dealer  is  concerned,  under  various  circumstances,  and 
may  prevent  the  production  and  sale  of  a  compara- 
tively low  quality  product  at  a  reasonable  price.  It 
j 


146  Milk   and   Its   Products 

would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  best  means  of  regulat- 
ing the  traffic  in  milk  would  be,  not  to  set  up  an 
artificial  standard  to  which  all  must  come,  but  to 
require  each  individual  dealer  to  guarantee  his  own 
standard,  and  hold  him  responsible  if  his  milk  were 
found  below.  In  this  way  it  would  be  possible  to 
sell  milk  of  various  qualities,  from  strictly  skimmed 
to  heavy  cream,  upon  a  graduated  scale  of  prices, 
with  exact  justice  to  every  one. 

Cream  for  consumption. — Since  the  introduction  of 
the  centrifugal  separator,  the  use  of  cream  as  an 
article  of  diet  and  for  household  purposes  has  very 
rapidly  increased,  and  the  amount  of  cream  so  used 
now  represents  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
total  production  of  milk.  The  sale  of  cream  to  con- 
sumers is  usually  carried  on  in  connection  with  the 
sale  of  milk,  and  the  conditions  of  care  and  cleanli- 
ness necessary  in  the  one  case  apply  equally  well  to 
the  other.  Cream,  however,  is  much  more  generally 
delivered  in  bottles  than  is  milk,  and  since  the  daily 
quantity  used  is  smaller,  there  is  a  greater  demand 
that  it  should  keep  sweet  for  a  longer  time.  For  this 
reason  it  is  still  more  important  that  cream  should  be 
kept,  so  far  as  possible,  free  from  contamination  with 
germs  of  fermentation,  and  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  separator 
till  it  goes  into  the  consumer's  hands;  and  of  course 
the  fresher  and  freer  from  germs  the  milk  is  when 
separated,  the  better  will  be  the  keeping  qualities  of 
the  resulting  cream.  Milk  containing  more  than  .2  per 
cent  of  lactic  acid  should  not  be  used  for  the  pro- 


Cream  for  Consumption  147 

duction  of  cream  for  commercial  purposes.  With 
care  it  is  not  difficult  to  produce  cream  that  will 
remain  sweet  for  four  or  five  days  or  even  a  week. 

Pasteurized  cream. — For  the  sake  of  its  better  keep- 
ing qualities  cream  that  is  to  be  used  for  commercial 
purposes  is  often  pasteurized.  If  it  is  pasteurized  at 
155°  F.  for  10  minutes  and  quickly  cooled  to  50°  F. 
or  below,  and  bottled  in  sterile  bottles,  it  will  keep, 
with  ordinary  precautions,  for  a  week  or  more. 
Cream  so  pasteurized  will  have  no  perceptibly  cooked 
taste,  but  it  will  be  considerably  thinner  in  consist- 
ency than  cream  of  a  like  percentage  of  fat  that 
has  not  been  pasteurized,  because  the  pasteurization 
greatly  and  permanently  reduces  the  viscosity.  Ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  "quality"  or  richness  of  the 
cream  in  fat  is,  in  popular  estimation,  almost  wholly 
in  proportion  to  its  consistency,  this  lack  of  con- 
sistency in  pasteurized  cream  is  a  matter  of  consid- 
erable commercial  importance.  Babcock  and  Russel* 
have  shown  that  the  consistency  may  be  restored 
by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  a  solution 
of  lime  in  cane  sugar,  to  which  they  have  given 
the  name  viscogen.  The  amount  added  is  so  small 
(about  1  part  to  150  of  cream)  that,  while  the  con- 
sistency is  perfectly  restored,  the  cream  is  not 
affected  in  odor,  taste  or  composition ;  but  since 
the  addition  of  anything  whatever  to  milk  or  cream 
is  prohibited  in  many  states,  cream  to  which  vis- 
cogen has  been  added  should  always  be  sold  under 
a  distinctive  name,  as  visco- cream.  For  preparation 
of  viscogen,  see  Appendix  A- 

"Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  13th  Report,  p.  81. 


148  Milk   and   Its    Products 

Quality  of  cream. —  The  most  unsatisfactory  thing 
about  the  sale  of  cream,  commercially,  is  its  varying 
percentage  of  fat.  Since  cream  is  merely  milk  into 
which  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  fat  has  been 
gathered,  it  follows  that  cream  may  be  anything 
that  the  seller  can  induce  the  puchaser  to  accept 
under  that  name,  and  may  contain  anywhere  from  6 
or  8  up  to  60  or  70  per  cent  of  fat.  Where  cream 
is  raised  by  the  gravity  process  it  will  contain  from 
18  to  22  per  cent  of  fat ;  but  where  it  is  separated 
by  centrifugal  process  the  separator  can  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  take  cream  of  almost  any  fat  con- 
tent desired. 

A  moderately  heavy  cream  is  quite  as  useful  and 
desirable  for  table  and  domestic  purposes  as  one  ex- 
cessively rich  in  butter -fat.  The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  recommended  a  minimum 
standard  of  18  per  cent  fat  for  cream  for  commer- 
cial purposes.  Such  a  cream  is  rich  enough  for  most 
table  and  domestic  use,  and  is  one  that  can  easily 
be  produced  by  a  gravity  process.  Very  many  state 
laws  have  recognized  the  federal  standard,  though 
other  standards  are  also  in  force  (see  Appendix  C). 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CERTIFIED   MILK 

Definition. — Commercial  certified  milk  is  a  com- 
paratively new  product  in  this  country,  and,  strictly 
speaking,  includes  milk  the  qualities  of  which,  especi- 
ally those  that  depend  upon  strict  sanitary  precau- 
tions, are  certified  to  or  guaranteed  by  some  official 
organization,  usually  a  milk  commission,  appointed  by 
a  medical  society  or  a  board  of  health.  Such  com- 
missions maintain  a  somewhat  strict  supervision  over 
the  production  and  handling  of  the  milk,  and  certify 
to  its  quality  as  to  cleanliness,  purity  and  composition. 
This  guarantee,  or  certification,  gives  the  consumer  a 
fairly  satisfactory  assurance  that  he  receives  milk  of 
superior  quality.  In  a  somewhat  broader  sense,  the 
term  certified  milk  may  include  milk  of  like  quality 
produced  with  equal  care,  although  it  may  not  be 
certified  to  by  any  official  organization.  Originally 
the  term  certified  milk  was  copyrighted,  and  rightly 
used  only  by  a  medical  society  in  New  Jersey  that 
first  certified  to  milk  in  the  United  States. 

Origin  of  certified  milk. — Primarily,  certified  milk 
was  produced  for  infant -feeding  and  for  hospital  use. 
The  high  mortality  of  infants  in  the  great  cities  led 
boards  of  health  to  seek  for  a  purer  and  more 

(149) 


150  Milk   and   Its   Products 

wholesome  product  for  this  particular  purpose.  The 
expense  of  producing  milk  of  this  particular  grade 
is  necessarily  great,  as  the  labor  involved  is  very 
much  more  than  that  required  to  produce  ordinary 
market  milk,  and  the  continual  oversight  by  trained 
men  unavoidably  increases  the  cost  of  production  very 
materially.  Certified  milk  differs  from  pasteurized  or 
sterilized  milk  in  this  important  essential.  The 
former  is  kept  as  clean  and  as  free  from  foreign 
matter  as  possible,  while  the  latter  is  treated  usually 
to  some  degree  of  heat,  to  kill  and  prevent  the 
growth  of  objectionable  bacteria.  Perhaps  the  most 
ideal  condition  for  the  consumption  of  milk  is  secured 
when  the  milk  is  drawn  by  the  young  directly  from 
the  mammary  glands  of  the  mother.  However,  when 
the  dairyman  attempts  to  serve  his  customers  in  the 
great  cities,  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  source  of 
production,  with  a  like  quality  of  milk,  many  difficul- 
ties are  encountered,  some  of  which  are  discussed  in 
the  following  pages.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  producer 
of  certified  milk  to  approach  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  ideal  condition  above  mentioned  by  excluding  all 
foreign  matter  and  by  keeping  the  milk  at  a  low 
temperature. 

"Certified  milk  has  been  kept  for  months  in  a  per- 
fectly sweet  condition.  It  has  been  sent  from  the 
interior  of  this  continent  to  Europe,  and  returned  with- 
out any  indication  of  souring.  After  such  a  journey 
or  length  of  time,  it  would  not,  however,  be  considered 
as  safe  for  food  as  the  fresh  product,  even  though  it 
had  not  soured  to  any  perceptible  degree. 


Standards  151 

Standards. — The  commissions  that  are  now  super- 
vising the  production  of  certified  milk  have  established 
various  standards  as  to  composition  and  bacterial  con- 
tent. Most  of  these  standards  exclude  from  certifica- 
tion milk  that  has  a  general  bacterial  content  of  more 
than  from  10,000  to  30,000  per  cubic  centimeter,  and 
the  requirement  as  to  fat -content  is  usually  some- 
what more  than  4  per  cent.  It  is  not  at  all. uncom- 
mon for  careful  producers  to  secure  milk  having  but 
a  few  hundred  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter. 

Production. — In  the  production  of  certified  milk,  it 
is  quite  essential  that  the  stables  be  constructed  with 
particular  reference  to  cleanliness.  As  the  labor  in- 
volved is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the 
expense  of  production,  the  ease  with  which  the  stable 
may  be  kept  clean  becomes  an  important  factor.  As 
wood  was  formerly  the  cheapest  of  the  building  ma- 
terials in  this  country,  it  was  used  largely  and,  in  many 
cases,  almost  exclusively,  in  the  construction  of  sta- 
bles; but,  as  the  certified  milk  producer  desires  the 
most  sanitary  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  durable 
structure,  he  has  eliminated  wood  as  a  building  ma- 
terial to  a  large  degree.  While  glazed  tile  and  glazed 
brick  make  a  most  ideal  structure,  yet  their  expense 
in  most  cases  prevents  their  use  in  the  construction 
of  stables  that  are  to  prove  financially  a  paying  invest- 
ment. Modern  methods  of  cement  construction  are 
proving  quite  satisfactory.  The  floors,  walls,  and 
even  the  roof,  are  sometimes  constructed  of  this  ma- 
terial and  seem  to  meet,  fairly  well,  the  requirements 
of  a  stable  for  the  production  of  certified  milk.  Mod- 


152  Milk   and   Its   Products 

em  methods  of  waterproofing  the  stable  floors  have 
overcome  quite  largely  the  objections  that  were  for- 
merly made  to  cement  because  it  was  damp,  and  con- 
sequently a  great  conductor  of  heat. 

It  is  important  that  the  stables  be  constructed  with 
particular  reference  to  ventilation.  It  is  essential  that 
the  air  in  the  stable  shall  be  comparatively  fresh  at 
all  times.  While  there  is  no  accepted  standard  or 
easy  means  of  determining  the  purity  of  the  air  in 
the  stable,  yet  it  may  be  said  that  it  will  be  sufficiently 
pure  when,  on  entering  the  stable  from  out-of-doors, 
the  air  presents  a  fair  degree  of  freshness,  with  no 
marked  animal  odors  or  perceptible  -stateness.  If  such 
odor  or  staleness  is  obvious,  the  stable  should  be 
considered  not  sufficiently  well  ventilated. 

As  dust  is  a  great  carrier  of  bacteria,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  admit  only  pure  air  and  to  have  all  dairy-rooms 
and  stables  as  free  from  dust  as  possible.  When  con- 
ditions will  permit,  it  will  be  found  an  advantage  to 
have  as  much  as  possible  of  the  grounds  surrounding 
the  stable  covered  with  turf.  This  will  prevent,  to  a 
considerable  degree,  the  entrance  of  dust  in  the  sta- 
ble, particularly  during  the  dry  summer  months  when 
it  is  most  difficult  to  produce  milk  having  a  low 
bacterial  content. 

Sanitary  stables. — It  is  important  that  sunlight  be 
permitted  to  enter  the  stables.  This  feature  is  con- 
sidered of  so  much  importance  by  some  milk  producers 
that  they  endeavor  to  arrange  their  stables  so  that 
the  sunlight  may  be  permitted  to  enter  on  one  side  of 
the  stable  in  the  forenoon  and  on  the  other  side  in 


Construction   of  Stables  153 

the  afternoon.  This  is  most  desirable  during  the 
winter  months,  in  order  to  give  as  much  direct  sun- 
light as  possible  to  the  stables,  because  of  its  effect  in 
promoting  the  general  health  of  the  cattle,  as  well  as 
in  destroying  or  retarding  the  development  of  bacteria. 

The  amount  of  window  surface  in  the  cow -stable 
should  at  least  be  sufficient  to  provide  four  square  feet 
of  clear  window  surface  per  cow.  If  this  amount,  or 
more,  is  provided,  and  the  windows  are  fairly  well  dis- 
tributed, the  stable  will  be  sufficiently  well  lighted  for 
all  practical  purposes.  While  some  may  desire  more 
than  this,  yet,  if  the  building  is  so  situated  that  the 
windows  will  admit  direct  sunlight,  the  window  surface 
stated  will  be  quite  sufficient. 

In  constructing  a  stable,  it  should  be  made  suffi- 
ciently large  to  give  each  animal  at  least  600  cubic 
feet  of  air  space.  If  a  less  amount  is  provided,  >t 
will  be  found  more  difficult  to  keep  the  air  pure  wUh- 
out  causing  perceptible  drafts  of  air  produced  by  ven- 
tilation. The  ideal  ventilation  secures  a  gradual 
change  without  producing  drafts,  and  yet  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  desired  degree  of  freshness. 

The  ease  with  which  the  stable  may  be  cleaned  is 
an  important  consideration.  Not  only  should  it  be  so 
constructed  that  it  is  easy  to  remove  the  voidings  of 
the  animals,  but  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  accumula- 
tions of  dust  in  any  part  of  the  stable,  as  well.  It  is, 
of  course,  impossible  to  so  construct  a  practical  stable 
that  dust  will  not  settle  in  some  places.  This,  how- 
ever, should  be  removed  frequently,  so  there  shall  be 
no  accumulation. 


154  Milk   and  Its   Products 

Selection  of  the  cows. — It  is  important  that  none  but 
sound,  healthy  cows  be  selected  for  the  production  of 
certified  milk.  The  strongest  and  most  vigorous  organ- 
izations not  only  produce  milk  best  in  quality,  but 
are  most  certain  to  stand  the  strain  incident  to  the 
trials  of  heavy  dairy  feeding.  It  is  also  important 
from  a  financial  standpoint  that  none  but  heavy 
milkers  be  selected,  as  the  labor  of  caring  for  the 
animals  is  so  great  as  to  make  light  milkers  even 
more  unprofitable  in  the  certified  milk  stable  than  on 
the  ordinary  farm.  Sufficient  care  should  be  exercised 
to  select  cows  that  have  sound  and  normal  udders. 
Those  that  have  at  some  time  been  affected  with  gar- 
get, even  though  apparently  fully  recovered,  should  be 
regarded  with  suspicion.  It  is  well  understood  that 
some  cows,  although  apparently  in  a  perfectly  normal, 
healthy  condition,  produce  milk  having  a  somewhat 
high  bacterial  content.  While  these  cows  are  not  so 
desirable,  yet  it  is  impossible  to  weed  them  out  with- 
out making  one  or  more  bacterial  examinations  of  the 
milk  of  each  individual.  Cows  that  show  any  indica- 
tion of  irritation  at  milking  time  are  not  desirable. 
Any  unnecessary  movement  tends  to  produce  more  or 
less  dust,  particularly  in  the  winter  time,  when  the 
stable  floors  are  partially  or  wholly  covered  with 
litter. 

Provision  should  be  made  to  remove  all  cows  from 
the  certified  milk  barn  that  have  reached  the  period 
of  lactation  when  they  are  known  as  strippers.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  should  not  be  placed  in  the  certi- 
fied herd  until  they  are  surely  over  the  trials  of  par- 


Cleaning  and   Care  of  Cows  155 

turition.     Ten  days  from  calving  should  usually  elapse 
before  using  the  milk  as  certified. 

Care  of  the  cows. — It  is  customary  to  clip  the  hair 
from  a  considerable  portion  of  the  rear  of  the  cow, 
particularly  from  the  udder,  flank,  tail,  thighs,  etc.,  to 
facilitate  the  ease  of  keeping  them  clean.  Anything 
that  will  tend  to  promote  the  ease  in  keeping  the 
cows  or  the  stable  clean  and,  at  the  same  time,  not 
detract  from  the  comfort  of  the  animal,  will  aid  ma- 
terially in  the  production  of  pure  milk.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  brushing  of  dust  or  dirt  from  the  cows 
by  the  milkers  at  milking  time,  the  cows  should  be 
thoroughly  groomed  each  day,  and  lightly  groomed  or 
thoroughly  brushed  before  each  milking.  It  should 
constantly  be  borne  in  mind  that  dust  and  all  fine 
particles  of  dirt  carry  large  numbers  of  bacteria,  and 
that  the  most  successful  producer  of  clean  milk 
devises  means  by  which  these  undesirable  foreign* 
products  may  be  most  perfectly  excluded.  Conse- 
quently, the  cows  should  not  be  fed  just  before 
milking  time  any  food  that  is  liable  to  cause  any  dust 
or  disagreeable  or  objectionable  odors  in  the  stable. 
The  time  for  feeding  the  dry,  coarse  fodders  is 
immediately  after  milking,  so  that  the  stable  may  be 
most  effectually  free  from  the  dust  incident  to  feed- 
ing. It  is  important,  also,  to  use  litter  or  bedding 
that  will  make  as  little  dust  as  possible.  Clean,  dry 
pine  shavings  are  popular  on  this  account.  While 
fine -cut  wheat  or  rye  straw  may  be  used,  yet  the 
shavings  are  preferred  by  most  dairymen  on  account 
of  cleanliness  and  ease  of  handling. 

r 


156  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Care  of  the  stable. — The  thorough  cleansing  of  the 
stable  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of 
clean  milk.  Not  only  should  the  stable  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  of  the  voidings,  but  it  should  be  washed  care- 
fully every  day.  If  the  cows  are  kept  in  the  stable 
most  of  the  time,  it  should  be  cleaned  of  voidings 
two  or  three  times  daily.  The  thorough  cleaning  of 
the  stable  is  an  important  aid  in  keeping  the  stable 
air  comparatively  fresh.  An  abundant  supply  of 
water,  under  pressure,  that  may  be  forced  through 
a  hose,  is,  of  course,  very  desirable.  If  the  water 
supply  is  somewhat  limited,  or  the  use  of  a  hose  not 
permitted,  the  use  of  disinfectants  is  oftentimes  resorted 
to,  and  undoubtedly  is  a  very  great  aid  in  maintain- 
ing a  low  bacterial  content  in  the  milk.  However, 
the  use  of  disinfectants  cannot  take  the  place  of 
thorough  cleansing,  as  the  disinfectants  will  not  pre- 
vent dust  from  accumulating.  Before  each  milking-, 
the  stable  should  be  freed  from  dust  as  perfectly  as 
possible.  Various  means  are  employed  to  accomplish 
this  end.  Where  water  is  at  hand,  under  sufficient 
pressure  to  produce  a  fine  spray,  spraying  the  whole 
interior  of  the  stable  is  an  effective  means  of  allay- 
ing the  dust.  When  this  cannot  be  done,  some  suc- 
cessful dairymen  turn  live  steam  into  the  stable  in 
sufficient  amounts  to  perfectly  clear  the  stable  of  all 
dust.  As  this  steam  condenses,  and  falls,  it  carries 
the  particles  of  dust  with  it.  This,  as  does  spraying, 
tends  to  dampen  the  litter  and  those  parts  of  the 
cows  that  are  not  washed,  and  thus  prevents  dust  by 
any  movement  of  the  cows. 


Necessary   Precautions   in   Milking  157 

Milking. — In  the  production  of  certified  milk,  clean- 
liness all  along  the  line  is  most  essential,  and  the 
cleanliness  of  the  milkers  and  their  wearing  apparel 
is  quite  important.  The  milker  should  be  scrupulously 
clean,  and  should  wear  clean  clothing,  preferably  cot- 
ton suits  that  will  readily  show  any  accumulation  of 
dirt.  Each  milker  should  be  provided  with  a  clean 
suit  as  often  as  every  day.  After  the  dust  is  removed 
from  the  stable  by  spraying,  or  by  the  other  means 
described  above,  before  the  milking  commences,  the 
cows  should  be  thoroughly  washed  011  those  parts 
that  are  likely  to  come  in  contact  with  the  milker, 
such  as  the  sides,  thighs,  udder,  tail,  etc.  These  parts 
should  be  washed  in  at  least  two  waters,  to  the  first 
of  which  should  be  added  some  odorless  disinfectant. 
After  the  last  washing,  the  parts  should  be  wiped  with 
a  damp  cloth  so  there  is  no  danger  of  dripping.  Then 
the  cows  are  ready  to  be  milked.  Practically  without 
exception,  the  milkers  in  a  certified  barn  use  some 
kind  of  covered  pail.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
covered  pails  with  various -sized  openings  on  the  mar- 
ket, from  which  choice  may  be  made.  They  are,  how- 
ever, pretty  well  agreed  that  milking  through  a  strainer 
is  not  to  be  commended.  It  undoubtedly  is  a  most 
excellent  practice  to  strain  the  milk  of  each  cow  sepa- 
rately. This  gives  the  dairyman  an  opportunity  to 
reject  the  milk  from  any  cow  that  does  not  seem  to  be 
quite  normal.  Occasionally  an  individual  produces  a 
little  slightly  stringy  milk  that  would  not  be  detected 
by  the  milker,  but  can  be  rejected  at  straining  time 
if  the  milk  from  each  cow  is  strained  separately. 


Pure  Air   in    Stable   and   Bottling -room        159 

The  milk  should  be  removed  from  the  stable  imme- 
diately after  it  is  drawn.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
the  milking  should  always  be  done  with  dry  hands. 
After  carrying  the  milk  of  one  cow  from  the  stable, 
the  milker  should  thoroughly  wash  and  wipe  his  hands 
before  returning  to  milk  another. 

It  is  equally  important  that  thorough  cleanliness  of 
both  vessels  and  air  be  maintained  when  the  milk  is 
removed  from  one  vessel  to  another.  The  question  of 
providing  pure  air  that  is  free  from  dust  for  the 
straining-,  cooling-  and  bottling-rooms,  is  sometimes  a 
difficult  one  to  solve.  During  the  winter  months, 
when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  it  is  not  so 
difficult;  but  when,  during  the  summer,  the  air  is 
more  or  less  dust -laden,  it  is  not  easy  to  free  it  from 
dust  before  admitting  it  to  the  milk -room.  Where 
large  quantities  of  milk  are  handled  in  close  proximity 
to  the  sterilizing  apparatus,  the  air  becomes  heated 
and  requires  frequent  changing,  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  ventilate  and  admit  none  but  pure  air.  It  is  very 
much  better  to  admit  air  to  the  cooling-  and  bottling- 
rooms  through  a  flue  of  a  considerable  height,  as  the 
air  near  the  ground  is  more  likely  to  be  dust -laden 
than  that  higher  up.  When  an  abundance  of  water 
under  pressure  is  at  hand,  an  effective  and  most  satis- 
factory means  of  ventilating  is  to  force  the  air  down  a 
flue  and  into  the  room  by  means  of  one  or  more  fine 
sprays  from  an  ordinary  fine -spray  nozzle,  placed  at 
or  near  the  top  of  the  flue.  This  not  only  drives  the 
air  into  the  room,  but  it  removes  the  dust  before  it 
enters.  One  of  the  most  successful  dairymen,  who 


160  Milk   and  Its   Products 

has  not  the  advantage  of  water  pressure,  pumps  the 
water  to  the  top  of  a  flue,  and  permits  it  to  run 
through  small  apertures  and  drop  like  rain,  thus  caus- 
ing a  current  of  air  down  the  flue  and,  at  the  same 
time,  freeing  it  from  dust. 

Milk  should  be  cooled  as  soon  as  possible  after  it 
is  drawn  from  the  cow,  and  the  temperature  should 
not  be  allowed  to  rise  until  it  is  in  the  consumers' 
hands.  While  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
exclude  dust  or  dirt  of  any  kind  from  the  milk,  it  is 
yet  necessary  to  strain  the  milk  before  cooling  through 
sterilized  strainers  of  cotton  wool. 

Immediately  after  cooling,  it  should  be  bottled,  and 
the  bottles  packed  immediately  in  the  receptacle  in 
which  they  are  shipped.  When  the  milk  is  to  be 
shipped  considerable  distances,  it  is  customary  to  pro- 
tect the  cap  with  which  the  bottle  is  sealed  with  either 
paraffin  or  some  sort  of  lead  foil,  paper,  or  tin  caps. 
Some  of  these  caps  are  attached  to  the  bottles  with 
lead  seals,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  remove  the  con- 
tents without  breaking  the  seals.  Certified  milk  bot- 
tles are  usually  packed  in  cases  carrying  twelve  quarts, 
and  are  sufficiently  large  to  hold  enough  crushed  ice  to 
withstand  a  shipment  of  three  or  four  hundred  miles. 

Care  of  utensils. — It  is  necessary  to  exercise  the 
greatest  care  in  washing  the  bottles  and  preparing 
them  for  filling  They  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  water  containing  soap  or  cleansing  powder,  and 
then  rinsed,  preferably  by  an  arrangement  that  will 
permit  each  bottle  to  be  rinsed  with  pure  water  that 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  anv  other  bottle.  After 


Cooling   and   Bottling  161 

rinsing,  they  should  be  drained,  placed  mouth  down- 
ward, and  sterilized,  preferably  with  steam  under  a  few 
pounds  pressure.  There  are  some  machines  on  the 
market  that  will  fill  the  bottles  and  cap  them  without 
the  attendant  handling  either  bottles  or  caps.  When 
the  bottles  and  caps  are  both  sterile,  this,  of  course, 
is  a  somewhat  desirable  feature.  There  is  no  reason 
whatever  why  just  as  good  results  may  not  be  obtained 
in  smaller  plants,  if  the  operator  desires  to  fill  the 
bottles  by  means  of  a  pitcher  or  dipper  or  some  other 
convenient  vessel,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this 
method  has  been  employed  by  some  very  successful  of 
the  smaller  producers.  In  certified  milk  plants,  where 
large  quantities  of  milk  are  handled,  some  of  the 
modern  bottle -filling  machines  prove  quite  satisfactory. 
Some  dairymen  set  the  bottles  in  ice -water  as  soon 
as  they  are  filled  and  capped,  in  order  to  secure  the 
quickest  cooling.  Others  prefer  to  place  the  bottles 
in  the  shipping  cases  and  cover  with  finely  crushed  ice. 

All  vessels  that  are  used  in  the  handling  of  milk 
should  be  thoroughly  washed,  rinsed,  and  sterilized, 
preferably  by  steam  under  pressure.  In  sterilizing 
cans  and  pails,  it  is  quite  important  to  have  them 
placed-  in  the  sterilizer  mouth  downward. 

Cost  of  production. — The  cost  of  production  of  cer- 
tified milk  will  depend  quite  largely  on  the  location 
and  arrangement  of  the  barns,  stables,  bottling-rooms, 
etc.,  as  well  as  the  ease  and  convenience  by  means  of 
which  suitable  roughage  and  concentrates  may  be 
secured  and  handled.  It  is  also  difficult  to  secure 
efficient  labor  for  the  cleaning  and  milking,  and  to 


162  Milk   and   Its   Products 

keep  them  profitably  employed  during  the  whole  day. 
As  milk  is  usually  packed  in  ice  for  shipment,  easy 
access  to  a  shipping -station  becomes  an  important 
factor.  Since  for  every  pound  of  milk  shipped  there 
will  be  at  least  three  pounds  of  extra  weight  in  ice, 
bottles  and  cases,  the  breakage  of  bottles  also  adds 
materially  to  the  cost.  Under  present  conditions,  the 
cost  of  producing  and  delivering  certified  milk  at  the 
shipping -station  may  be  estimated,  from  a  conservative 
standpoint,  to  be  at  least  twice  that  of  good  market  milk. 

The  various  commissions  that  superintend  the  pro- 
duction and  marketing  of  certified  milk  as  yet  have 
not  agreed  upon  and  adopted  a  uniform  standard, 
consequently  there  is  considerable  variation  as  to  the 
requirements,  and  some  dissatisfaction  among  the  pro- 
ducers of  certified  milk  at  what  seem  to  them  to  be  some- 
what arbitrary  rulings.  This  feature  has  undoubtedly 
deterred  some  from  entering  this  field  of  production 
who  otherwise  might  have  done  so  had  they  been 
permitted  to  have  complete  control  of  their  business. 

The  high  cost  of  certified  milk  is  undoubtedly  the 
chief  factor  in  preventing  its  more  general  use. 
There  are,  however,  many  people  in  our  cities  who 
desire  milk  of  this  grade,  but,  as  they  are  pretty 
well  scattered  over  the  residence  districts,  the  cost  of 
delivery,  as  well  as  the  cost  of  production,  compared 
to  that  of  ordinary  market  milk,  seems  to  many  to  be 
excessively  high.  At  the  present  time,  under  the 
existing  requirements,  the  demand  for  certified  milk 
in  the  cities  of  the  United  States  seems  to  be  fairly 
well  provided  for. 


CHAPTER   IX 

SEPARATION  OF  CREAM 

CREAM  is  that  part  of  milk  into  which  a  large 
portion  of  its  fat  has  been  gathered.  It  "is  com- 
posed of  the  same  constituents  as  milk,  but  they 
are  not  in  the  same  or  any  constant  relative  pro- 
portion. Cream  is  separated  from  milk  to  be  con- 
sumed as  food,  and,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  in 
the  manufacture  of  butter.  The  separation  of  cream 
is  always  attended  with  some  loss  of  fat.  The  per- 
centage of  fat  in  cream  may  vary  anywhere  between 
8  and  70  per  cent.  Cream  of  good  quality  for  com- 
mercial purposes  should  contain  from  18  to  25  per 
cent  of  fat,  and  very  rich  cream  contains  from  35  to 
40  per  cent  of  fat.  Cream  is  composed  of  glob- 
ules of  fat,  with  such  part  of  the  water  and  solids 
as  adhere  to  them.  Its  separation  from  the  milk 
is  effected  by  means  of  the  difference  in  specific 
gravity  between  the  globules  of  fat  and  the  milk 
serum.  The  fat  in  the  milk  is  in  the  condition 
known  as  an  emulsion  ;  that  is,  in  the  form  of  minute 
globules,  which  are  kept  from  running  together  and 
coalescing  by  means  of  the  surface  tension  of  their 
particles  and  the  viscosity  of  the  liquid  in  which 
they  float ;  therefore,  any  condition  of  the  milk 

(163) 


164  Milk    and    Its    Products 

which  tends  to  increase  the  surface  tension  or  the 
viscosity  will  act  as  a  hindrance  towards  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  cream.  While  the  viscosity  of  the  milk 
serum  prevents  the  particles  of  fat  from  uniting 
into  a  mass,  still  the  particles  have  considerable  free- 
dom of  movement  in  the  milk,  and  being  of  a  less 
specific  gravity,  of  course  are  acted  upon  with  less 
intensity  by  any  force  to  which  the  milk  is  subjected. 
If  the  milk  is  allowed  to  remain  at  rest  in  a 
vessel,  the  force  of  gravity,  acting  with  different  in- 
tensities upon  the  globules  of  fat  and  the  milk  serum, 
will  cause  the  particles  of  fat  to  gather  together 
near  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  In  so  gathering, 
they  carry  with  them  certain  of  the  milk  con- 
stituents, and  the  layer  of  fat  globules  and  adher- 
ing particles  we  call  cream.  From  time  immemo- 
rial, and  until  within  a  very  recent  date,  the 
force  of  gravity,  acting  in  the  way  indicated,  has 
been  the  only  means  used  for  separating  cream  from 
milk.  Now  machines  are  in  use  that  effect  a  sepa- 
ration of  the  cream  from  milk  by  means  of  centrif- 
ugal force,  and  at  the  present  time  we  have  three 
systems  of  separating  cream  ;  namely,  by  gravity 
acting  upon  a  thin  layer  of  milk  in  a  shallow  vessel, 
known  as  the  Shallow  Pan  System ;  secondly,  by 
gravity  acting  upon  a  deeper  mass  of  milk,  usually 
submerged  or  partially  submerged  in  water,  known 
as  the  Deep  Setting  System ;  and  thirdly,  by  ma- 
chines making  use  of  centrifugal  force,  known  as 
the  Centrifugal  or  Separator  System.  The  quality 
of  the  cream  for  consumption  or  for  purposes  of 


Systems   of  Separating    Cream  165 

manufacture  is  not  affected  either  one  way  or  the 
other  by  any  of  these  three  systems,  so  that  their 
relative  economy  rests  wholly  upon  the  complete- 
ness, cost  and  ease  of  separation. 

Since  the  separation  of  cream  from  milk  is  al- 
ways attended  with  some  loss  of  fat,  it  is  pertinent 
to  inquire  as  to  the  necessity  of  any  separation  of 
the  cream  when  butter  is  to  be  made.  It  is  per- 
fectly possible  to  manufacture  butter  directly,  by 
churning  whole  milk  without  separating  cream,  and 
undoubtedly  the  first  churns  were  skins  of  animals, 
into  which  the  whole  milk  was  placed  and  then 
agitated  until  the  butter  was  brought  ;  but  under 
good  conditions  it  is  not  possible  to  so  completely 
remove  the  fat  from  the  milk  by  a  churning  process 
as  by  a  creaming  process ;  so  that  while  there  is 
some  loss  in  separating  the  cream,  there  is  usually 
a  greater  loss  in  churning  the  butter  from  the  whole 
milk.  Even  when  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  butter- 
milk is  no  greater  than  the  loss  of  fat  in  the 
skimmed  milk,  the  greater  amount  of  labor  required 
to  churn  the  whole  mass  of  milk  still  renders  cream- 
ing an  economical  practice  in  the  manufacture  of 
butter. 

Gravity  creaming. — In  separating  cream  by  force 
of  gravity,  there  is  a  greater  loss  of  fat,  a  longer 
time  required,  and  the  various  conditions  affecting 
the  milk  have  a  greater  influence  upon  the  creaming 
than  when  centrifugal  separation  is  used.  The 
conditions  of  the  milk  that  affect  the  creaming  by 
the  gravity  process  are :  First,  the  size  of  the  fat 


166  Milk   and    Its    Products 

globules ;  second,  the  amount  of  solids  not  fat  in 
the  milk  ;  third,  the  character  of  the  solids  not 
fat.  The  larger  the  fat  globules  the  more  readily 
they  separate  from  the  milk,  since  the  larger  the 
sphere  the  less  the  ratio  between  the  surface  and 
the  mass,  so  that  a  large  fat  globule  meets  with  pro- 
portionately less  resistance  because  of  the  viscosity 
of  the  milk  than  a  small  one.  The  size  of  the  fat 
globules  is  to  a  great  extent  a  characteristic  of  the 
breed  and  individuality  of  the  animal,  but  cows 
newly  calved  secrete  larger  fat  globules  than  those 
in  advanced  periods  of  lactation  ;  consequently  we 
find  that  the  milk  from  new  milch  cows  is  more 
readily  creamed  than  from  those  long  in  milk. 
The  amount  of  solids  not  fat  affects  creaming  by 
the  gravity  process  because  of  the  difference  it  effects 
in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fat  and  milk  serum. 
The  solids  not  fat  are  all  heavier  than  water,  and 
in  the  milk  are  in  a  state  of  solution  or  semi -solu- 
tion ;  hence,  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  solids  not 
fat  increases  the  specific  gravity  of  the  milk  serum 
in  which  they  are  dissolved,  and  makes  the  differ- 
ence between  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fat  and 
milk  serum  greater  and  the  separation  of  the  fat 
easier.  The  proportion  of  solids  not  fat  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  period  of  lactation  and,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  by  the  character  of  the  food.  Cows 
far  advanced  in  lactation  often  give  milk  extremely 
rich  in  solids  not  fat.  Cows  fed  on  dry  food  give 
milk  containing  less  water  than  those  fed  on  watery 
or  succulent  foods.  In  so  far  as  these  conditions 


Gravity   Processes   of   Creaming  167 

increase  the  amount  of  solids  not  fat,  we  should  ex- 
pect such  milk  to  be  more  easily  creamed,  but  the 
favorable  effect  of  the  increase  of  solids  is  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  the  unfavorable  effect  of 
the  character  of  the  solids.  Of  the  solids  not  fat, 
albumin,  casein,  sugar  and  ash  increase  the  viscos- 
ity of  the  milk  in  the  order  named,  and  of  these 
the  casein  is  more  subject  to  variation,  so  that  the 
increase  in  the  proportion  of  solids  not  fat  ordi- 
narily means  an  increase  in  casein,  and  this  means 
a  largely  increased  viscosity.  And  the  increase  in 
viscosity  tends  to  prevent  the  separation  of  the  fat 
more  than  the  increase  in  specific  gravity  tends  to 
aid  it.  In  general,  the  conditions  which  bring  a,bout 
an  increase  in  the  viscosity  of  the  milk  occur  at  the 
same  time  as  the  fat  globules  are  growing  smaller,  so 
that  we  find  a  wide  range  of  variability  in  the  ease 
and  completeness  with  which  cream  may  be  separated 
by  gravity  process. 

Shallow  pan  creaming. — This  is  the  oldest  method 
of  separating  cream  from  milk,  and  notwithstanding 
the  rapid  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  cream- 
ing methods  since  the  introduction  of  centrifugal 
separators,  large  amounts  of  butter  are  still  made 
from  cream  separated  in  this  way.  The  conditions 
most  favorable  for  a  complete  separation  of  the  fat 
in  the  shallow  pan  system  are,  that  the  milk  should 
be  put  at  rest  in  the  pans  as  quickly  as  possible 
after  it  is  drawn,  that  it  should  cool  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  rapidity  to  a  temperature  of  60°  F.,  and  that 
it  should  remain  as  nearly  as  may  be  constantly  at 


168  Milk   and   Its   Products 

that  temperature  for  at  least  thirty -six  hours. 
Further,  since  the  milk  must  remain  for  so  long  a 
time,  it  is  essential  that  the  atmosphere  to  which  it 
is  exposed  be  pure  and  free  from  currents  of  air 
and  particles  of  dust.  These  conditions  can  be 
secured  in  a  clean,  cool,  well  ventilated  cellar. 
In  the  shallow  pan  system,  the  depth  of  milk  should 
be  from  2  to  4  inches.  Occasionally  water,  usually 
running  water,  is  used  to  secure  a  quick  cooling 
and  more  even  temperature  surrounding  the  milk, 
and  when  this  is  done  the  depth  of  the  milk  may 
be  increased  to  4  or  6  inches.  Under  the  shallow 
pan  system,  the  cream  is  separated  from  the  milk 
by  removing  it  from  the  surface  with  a  thin  flat 
instrument,  usually  made  of  tin,  and  called  a 
skimmer.  In  this  method  of  removal,  it  is  not 
possible  to  completely  remove  all  the  cream  that  has 
risen  to  the  surface,  and  in  removing  the  cream 
more  or  less  of  the  milk  is  taken  with  it,  so  that 
in  the  process  of  skimming  there  is  a  considerable 
loss  of  fat  and  a  thin  cream  is  always  obtained ; 
but  even  if  the  losses  in  the  skimming  operation 
could  be  obviated,  the  separation  of  the  particles  of 
fat  in  the  shallow  pan  system  is  less  complete  than 
in  either  of  the  others.  Under  ordinarily  good  con- 
ditions, 20  per  cent  of  the  fat  in  the  milk  is  lost 
when  the  shallow  pan  system  is  used.  Skimmed  milk 
containing  less  than  .5  of  1  per  cent  of  fat  is 
rarely  obtained  under  this  system. 

Deep  setting  system.—  About  thirty  years  ago  it 
was  discovered  that  if  milk  could  be  set  in  vessels 
when  first  drawn,  andx  rapidly  cooled  to  a  tempera- 


Theory   of  Deep    Setting   System  169 

ture  of  about  40°  F.,  and  held  at  that  temperature 
for  twelve  to  twenty  -  four  hours,  not  only  could 
the  depth  be  increased  from  4  to  20  inches,  but  the 
separation  was  much  more  complete  in  a  shorter 
time.  In  order  to  bring  about  quick  cooling,  ves- 
sels not  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter  were  used,  and 
water,  either  from  cold  springs  or  containing  ice, 
was  used  as  the  refrigerant.  Two  essentials,  then, 
for  complete  creaming  by  this  system  are  the  rapid 
and  immediate  cooling  of  the  milk  to  40°  F.,  and 
a  sufficient  supply  of  ice  to  maintain  this  tempera- 
ture for  twenty  -  four  hours.  Under  these  condi- 
tions the  fat  may  be  so  completely  separated  that 
not  more  than  .2  of  1  per  cent  of  fat  is  left  in  the 
skimmed  milk.  Various  devices  have  been  used, 
the  best  known  of  which  is  the  Cooley  system,  in 
which  the  cans  are  not  only  surrounded  by  ice- 
cold  water,  but  completely  submerged  in  it,  the 
chief  effect  of  the  submerging  being  to  guard  the 
milk  against  contamination  through  the  atmosphere. 
The  same  conditions  as  to  the  character  of  the  milk 
affect  completeness  of  separation  in  both  the  shallow 
pan  and  deep  setting  systems,  but  no  completely 
satisfactory  explanation  has  ever  been  assigned  as  a 
reason  why  the  fat  globules  should  rise  more 
rapidly  and  more  completely  through  20  inches  of 
milk  at  a  temperature  of  40°  F.  in  the  deep  setting 
system,  than  through  4  inches  at  a  temperature  of 
60° -70°  F.  in  the  shallow  pan  system. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  because  water  is  a 
better  conductor  of  heat  than  fat,  it  will  cool  more 
rapidly  than  the  fat,  and  will  increase  in  density 


170  Milk   and   Its   Products 

till  its  maximum  density  is  reached  at  about  40°  F., 
at  which  temperature  the  difference  between  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  water  or  milk  serum  and  the 
fat  will  be  at  its  greatest,  and  the  separation  of  the 
fat  for  that  reason  promoted.  But  while  the  water 
does  cool  faster  than  the  fat,  the  fat  shrinks  or 
increases  in  density  much  faster  than  the  water, 
so  that  the  difference  in  specific  gravity  between  the 
two  is  no  greater,  and  in  fact  less,  at  low  tempera- 
tures than  at  high  ones.  Further,  the  viscosity  of 
the  milk  serum  is  much  increased  at  low  tempera- 
tures, so  that  the  favorable  influence  of  low  tempera- 
tures cannot  be  explained  upon  these  grounds. 
Arnold*  attempted  to  explain  the  favorable  influence 
wholly  upon  the  relative  contraction  of  the  fat  and 
serum,  as  follows  : 

Water  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than  fat  ;  hence  when 
the  temperature  of  milk  varies  either  up  or  down,  the  water 
in  the  milk  feels  the  effect  of  heat  or  cold  sooner  than  the 
fat  in  the  cream  does,  therefore  the  cream  is  always  a  little 
behind  the  water  in  swelling  with  heat  or  shrinking  with  cold, 
thus  diminishing  the  difference  between  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  milk  and  cream  when  the  temperature  is  rising,  and  in- 
creasing it  when  the  temperature  is  falling. 

But   that   this   explanation   is  not   sufficient,    Bab- 
cock  t   has    shown  thus  : 

Though  it  is  true  that  water  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat 
than  fat,  the  small  size  of  the  fat  globules  renders  it  impossible 
that,  under  any  circumstances,  there  can  be  more  than  a  small 
fraction  of  a  degree  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the 
fat  and  that  of  the  milk  serum.  Moreover,  within  the  limits 
of  temperature  practical  for  creaming  (90°  F.  to  40°  F.),  the 


*  American  Dairying,  p.  210. 

f  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bull.  18,  p.  24. 


Effect   of  Fibrin  171 

coefficient  of  expansion  of  butter  fat  is  more  than  three  times  as 
great  as  that  of  water,  so  that  in  order  to  maintain  the  same 
relative  difference  in  their  specific  gravities,  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  falling,  the  milk  serum  must  cool  more  than  three  times 
as  rapidly  as  the  fat.  In  other  words,  when  the  milk  serum  has 
cooled  from  90°  F.  to  40°  F.,  or  through  50°,  the  fat  globules 
should  have  lost  less  than  17°,  and  should  still  have  a  tempera- 
ture of  over  73°  F.,  a  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the 
fat  and  serum  of  more  than  33°.  Such  a  condition  is  mani- 
festly impossible,  but  any  less  difference  than  this  would  cause 
the  fat  to  become  relatively  heavier  than  at  first,  and  would 
operate  against  the  creaming. 

On  the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory  explanation  of 
the  good  effect  of  the  low  temperature  in  the  deep 
setting  system  is  that  advanced  by  Babcock,*  that 
the  presence  of  fibrin  in  milk,  especially  when  it  has 
coagulated  in  the  form  of  threadlike  masses,  permeat- 
ing the  fluid  in  all  directions,  offers  a  considerable 
obstacle  to  the  rising  of  the  fat  globules.  The  sudden 
reduction  of  the  temperature  quickly  after  the  milk 
is  drawn,  by  preventing  the  formation  of  these 
fibrin  clots  or  threads,  aids  in  the  separation  of  the 
fat.  This  would  be  entirely  satisfactory  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  it  has  been  shown  that  while  it 
is  usually  of  advantage  to  cool  the  milk  imme- 
diately after  it  is  drawn,  in  some  cases,  at  least, 
the  setting  and  cooling  may  have  been  delayed  for 
a  time  long  enough  to  permit  the  formation  of 
fibrin  clots  without  appreciable  effects  upon  the  sep- 
aration, as  the  following  tables  t  very  clearly  show, 
the  efficiency  of  creaming  being  measured  by  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  the  skimmed  milk: 


*Loc.  cit. 

t  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bull.  No.  29,  p.  73. 


172 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


Effect   of  delayed   setting   upon   creaming. 


Date, 
1890. 

No.  hours  set. 

Temp,  water  in  tank. 

"o 

1 

1* 

I1 

I. 
Set  at  once. 

1 
3 

P. 

i 

1    Dec.  24,  p.  M.  .    .    . 
2.  Dec.  25,  A.   M.  .    .    . 
3.  Dec.  25,  p.  M.  .    .    . 
4.  Dee.  26,  A.  M.  .    .    . 
5.  Dec.  26,  p.  M.  .    .    . 
6.  Dec.  26,  A.  M.  .    .    . 
7.  Dec.  26,  p.  M.  .    .    . 
8.  Dec.  27,  A.  M.  .    .  * 

Average  of  all        ... 
Average  Nos.  1-5  .    .    . 

13 

8.5 
12 
9.75 
16 

8.25 
14 
9 

40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 

3.90 
3.45 
4.05 

4.10 
4.15 
4.00 
3.90 

35.5 

18.5 
37 
29 
36 

92 
86 
86 
88 
90 

.57 

.56 
.59 
.55 
.24 

11 

40 

3.94 

88 

.50 
.50 

11. 

in. 

Delayed  —  kept  warm. 

Delayed  —  cooled. 

Date, 

1 

& 

1 

.sd 

M 

'» 

1 

«H^J 

M 

1 

«M^ 

1890. 

'i 

i 

cc 

1    I 

1 

05 

P, 

Is 

i 

js 
g 

1 

s| 

00 

a 

8 

£S 

i 

H 

PM    01 

^ 

i 

H 

PWoa 

1.  Dec.  24,  P.  M. 

24.5 

60 

88 

.59 

30 

60 

68 

.64 

2.  Dec.  25,  A.  M. 

18.5 

45 

84 

.56 

75.5 

220 

62 

.55 

3.  Dec.  25,  P.  M. 

37 

45 

84 

.47 

61.5 

60 

74 

.53 

4.  Dec.  26,  A.  M. 

30.25 

130 

82 

.68 

5.  Dec.  26,  P.  M. 

36 

75 

90 

.22 

6.  Dec.  26,  A.  M. 

37.5 

205 

92 

.68 

37.5 

205 

58 

.66 

7.  Dec.  26,  P.  M. 

24 

90 

90 

.49 

23.5 

90 

65 

.65 

8.  Dec.  27.  A.  M. 

74 

210 

95 

.68 

74 

210 

64 

.51 

Average  of  all 

107 

88 

.55 

141 

65 

.59 

Average  Nos.  1-5 
Average    '       6-8 

.50 
.58 

.57 
.60 

Effect  of  Delay  in  Deep  Setting  System        173 

The  milk  was  divided  into  three  portions  ;  one  was  set  at 
once,  one  was  delayed  for  an  hour,  but  kept  up  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  92  in  a  water  bath,  and  the  third  was  put  in  the  open 
air  and  allowed  to  cool  for  an  hour  before  set.  In  the  cases 
of  delay,  the  milk  was  stirred  up  just  before  it  was  placed  in 
the  creamer,  and  all  the  settings  were  made  in  Cooley  cans,  in 
ice  water. 

The  trials  reported  under  the  same  number,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  first  and  second,  are  comparable,  as  they  were  made 
from  different  portions  of  the  same  samples  of  milk.  In  num- 
bers 1  to  5,  inclusive,  the  delayed  sample  (Column  II.)  was 
kept  warm  in  a  water  bath  ;  in  numbers  6  to  8  the  milk 
used  had  been  carried  about  on  the  route,  and  the  delayed 
sample  was  heated  up  after  having  been  allowed  to  cool. 

From  a  similar  series  of  experiments  Jordan* 
concluded : 

That  with  herds  of  ordinary  size,  it  will  not  be  profitable 
to  submit  to  any  great  inconvenience  in  order  to  place  the 
milk  in  ice  water  immediately  after  it  is  drawn.  In  a  half 
hour  to  an  hour,  milk  does  not  seem  to  cool  sufficiently  to  ma- 
terially affect  the  completeness  with  which  cream  will  rise. 

In  order  to  overcome  certain  difficulties  that  often 
occur  in  raising  cream  by  deep  setting  process,  dilu- 
tion of  the  milk  with  water  has  been  recommended, 
usually  under  one  of  the  three  following  conditions: 

1st.  Dilution  with  one -fourth  to  one -third  of  hot 
water,  135°  F.,  and  seiting  in  deep  cans  at  a  tem- 
perature as  low  as  can  be  obtained  without  the  use 
of  ice,  not  below  55°. 

2d.    Dilution  with  one -half   to  equal   quantities  of 

*  Maine  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  Part  II.  page  48. 


174  Milk   and   Its   Products 

cold  water,  and  setting  under  the  same  conditions  as 
above. 

Both  of  these  being  intended  as  substitutes  for  the 
use  of  ice  in  cool  deep  setting  in  the  summer  time. 

3d.  Dilution  with  one -third  to  one -fourth  of  hot 
water  (135°),  setting  in  deep  cans  in  ice  water  (40  F.). 

This  last  intended  to  overcome  the  difficulty  of 
complete  creaming  often  found  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter  with  the  milk  of  cows  far  advanced  in  the 
period  of  lactation. 

The  idea  is  that  the  increased  fluidity  imparted  to 
the  milk  by  the  water  would  facilitate  the  separa- 
tion of  the  fat  globules.  During  the  winters  of 
1888-9  and  1889-90  very  little  ice  could  be  harvested 
through  the  dairy  regions  of  the  northeastern  United 
States,  and  in  the  summer  following  this  idea  of 
dilution  was  widely  advocated  and  considerably  prac- 
ticed ;  but  experience  and  experiment*  have  shown 
that  while  dilution  may  be  of  some  advantage  when, 
for  lack  of  a  supply  of  ice  or  other  reasons,  it  is 
not  possible  to  secure  a  temperature  below  60°  F., 
it  can  in  no  case  be  considered  a  satisfactory  sub- 
stitute for  setting  the  cans  in  water  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  40°  F, 

The  amount  of  advantage  which  may  be  obtained 
where  dilution  is  practiced,  as  measured  by  the  per- 
centage of  fat  in  the  skimmed  milk,  is  seen  in  the 
following  tables  (on  pages  175  and  176),  taken  from 
Bulletin  No.  39  of  the  Cornell  University  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station : 


*  Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  4th  A»n.  Rept.  p.  1QQ. 


Effect  of  Dilution  in  Deep  Setting  System       175 


Diluted   and   undiluted   milk    set    in  water   at   a    temperature 
of  60°   F. 

Temperatures  F. 

1 

|     Diluted. 

Not  diluted. 

Date, 

1 

1 

rrt 

i 

li 

|| 

il 

8* 

11 

il 

1892. 

1 

IH' 

5j 

I 

8 

g- 

la 

i!.- 

1? 

|1 

M 

1 

M 

1 

1 

• 

vfi 

M 

°3 

^   03   00 

§ 

& 

i 

Q 

1 

« 
o 

CO 

1 

£ 

jr 

£~~ 

1* 

r__ 

Feb.    19    . 

54 

18 

84 

135 

97 

65 

60 

12 

4.2 

1.07 

.89 

19  . 

72 

84 

84 

65 

59 

13 

4.2 

1.33 

1.09 

"      22   . 

54 

18 

90 

136 

99 

64 

59.5 

12.5 

4.2 

.52 

.43 

22   . 

72 

90 

90 

64 

57.5 

14.5 

4.2 

.97 

.77 

"      23   . 

54 

18 

89 

135 

101 

66 

60.75 

11.25 

4.3 

.80 

.68 

23   . 

72 

89 

89 

66 

58.50 

13.5 

4.3 

1.12 

.91 

"      28   . 

54 

18 

88 

134 

98 

57 

58 

14 

.35 

.28 

28   . 

72 

88 

88 

57 

57 

15 

.65 

.51 

"      29   . 

54 

18 

86 

134 

97 

60 

59.75 

12.25 

4.4 

.68 

.56 

29   . 

72 

86 

86 

60 

58 

14 

4.4 

1.18 

.95 

Mar.     1 

54 

18 

86 

135 

96 

60 

61 

11 

4.1 

.68 

.58 

1   . 

72 

86 

86 

60 

58.5 

13.5 

4.1 

.96 

.78 

13    . 

54 

18 

86 

135 

96 

60 

60.75 

11.25 

4.3 

.85 

.72 

13   . 

72 

86 

86 

60 

57.75 

14.25 

4.3 

.82 

.66 

"       14   . 

27 

9 

84 

136 

96 

58 

29.5 

6.5 

3.9 

.88 

.72 

14   . 

36 

84 

84 

58 

30 

6 

3.9 

1.14 

.95 

"       15   . 

27 

9 

86 

132 

95 

58 

30 

6 

3.9 

.73 

.61 

15   . 

36 

86 

86 

58 

29.5 

6.5 

3.9 

1.25 

1.02 

"       26    . 

27 

9 

88 

136 

101 

56 

29.5 

6.5 

4.1 

27   . 

36 

88 

88 

56 

28.5 

7.5 

41 

.67 

.53 

"      27   . 

54 

18 

90 

135 

100 

64 

60.25 

11.75 

4.5 

.81 

.68 

27   . 

36 

90 

90 

64 

30 

6 

4.5 

.70 

.58 

"      28   . 

27 

9 

88 

136 

102 

61 

31 

5 

4 

28   . 

36 

88 

88 

61 

30 

6 

4 

1.21 

1.01 

"       31   . 

27 

9 

87 

135 

102 

62 

30 

6 

4.1 

.93 

.78 

31    . 

36 

87. 

87 

62 

29.75 

6.25 

4.1 

1.17 

.97 

Apr.      2   . 

27 

9 

91 

135 

103 

65 

30 

6 

4.7 

1.08 

.90 

2   . 

36 

91 

91 

65 

29 

7 

4.7 

1.68 

1.35 

4   . 

27 

9 

92 

135 

102 

62 

29 

7 

4.2 

.31 

.25 

4    . 

36 

92 

92 

62 

29 

7 

4.2 

.92 

.74 

Average 

..|.. 

'• 

.76 

.62 

1.05 

.85 

176 


Milk    and   Its   Products 


Diluted  and  undiluted  milk  set   in  water  at  a   temperature  of 
40°-45°   F. 


Temperatures  P. 

1 

Diluted. 

Not  diluted 

Date, 

n* 

1 

1 

1 

|1 

£ 

* 

*l 

1892. 

^Q 

if 

*4 

-d 

s" 

"3,2 

c  E 

W°E 

e  6 

«  E 

^ 

o 

r4 

-2 

a 

§ 

°r£ 

sj 

— 

.2   .   . 

i 

I 

1 

£ 

1 

1 

1 

r 

i1 

£~ 

a? 

£~~ 

Feb.  20  . 

54 

18 

87 

140 

100 

44 

58 

14 

4.4 

.32 

.26 

"    20  . 

72 

87 

87 

44 

54.25 

It.  75 

4.4 

.25 

.19 

"    21  . 

54 

18 

88 

136 

99 

44 

57.5 

14.5 

4.4 

.20 

.16 

"    21  . 

72 

88 

88 

44 

53.75 

18.25 

4.4 

.24 

.18 

"    24  . 

54 

18 

87 

134 

97 

45 

56.25 

15.75 

4.2 

.23 

.18 

"    24   . 

72 

87 

87 

45 

53.5 

18.5 

4.2 

•  17 

.13 

"    25  . 

54 

18 

90 

134 

100 

46 

57 

15 

4.4 

.23 

.18 

"    25  . 

72 

90 

90 

46 

54.25 

17.75 

4.4 

.26 

.20 

Mar.  30  . 

27 

9 

86 

135 

100 

44 

29 

7 

.32 

.26 

'     30  . 

36 

86 

86 

44 

27 

9 

.35 

.26 

"     17  . 

27 

9 

88 

136 

97 

44 

29 

7 

4.7 

.11 

.09 

*     17  • 

18 

88 

88 

44 

13.5 

4.5 

4.7 

.18 

.14 

"     30  . 

27 

9 

86 

135 

100 

44 

28 

8 

5 

.08 

.06 

'     30  . 

18 

86 

86 

44 

13 

5 

5 

.12 

.09 

Aprils 

1  '  5  . 

27 
18 

9 

90 
90 

138 

103 
90 

46 
46 

29.75 
14.5 

6.25 
3.5 

3.3 
3.3 

.31 

.25 

.28 

.23 

Average 

.23 

.18 

.23 

.18 

Summing  up  all  of  the  experiments,  the  average 
efficiency  of  creaming  as  measured  by  the  percent- 
age of  fat  in  the  skimmed  milk  would  appear  to  be 
about  as  follows  : 

Diluted,  set    at    60°  (39  trials)     .77  per  cent. 
Undiluted,  set  at  60°  (30      "    )  1:00       " 

'  40°  (26  )     .29 

It     would    seem,  therefore,  that     while,  when    the 
milk  is  set  at   60°  F.  or  thereabouts,  there  is  consider 
able  advantage,  so   far   as   the   efficiency   of   creaming 


Dilution    /Separator 

is  concerned,  in  diluting  it  with  25  per  cent  of  warm 
water,  this  dilution  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  setting  without  dilution  in  ice  water,  and 
it  has  the  further  disadvantage  of  requiring  increased 
tank  capacity. 

About  1897  the  idea  that  dilution  with  water  is 
an  important  aid  in  gravity -creaming  broke  out  with 
renewed  activity.  It  was  especially  recommended  by 
the  manufacturers  of  certain  forms  of  cheap  tin  cans 
in  which  dilution  was  recommended  as  an  essential 
part  of  the  process.  These  cans  were  called  gravity 
"separators"  modified  by  various  high-sounding, 
qualifying  phrases,  with  the  evident  intention  of  con- 
veying the  idea  that  this  process  was  as  efficient  as 
centrifugal  separation,  and  large  numbers  of  the 
"separators"  have  been  sold,  mainly  to  unsuspecting 
or  ignorant  farmers,  who  have  been  deluded  into  the 
idea  that  they  were  securing  a  contrivance  equal  in 
efficiency  to  a  centrifugal  separator  at  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  cost.  The  form  of  many  of  the  cans  was 
patented,  but  it  was  soon  shown*  that  so  far  as  the 
process  is  concerned,  the  patents  were  valueless,  and 
trials  at  several  experiment  stations  showed  that  dilu- 
tion in  gravity  separators,  of  whatever  form,  is  no 
more  efficacious  than  has  been  shown  above.  For 
this  reason,  and  because  rival  manufacturers  have 
become  involved  in  controversies  over  their  various 
patents,  the  "dilution  separator  boom"  is,  fortunately, 
likely  to  be  of  short  duration. 

Centrifugal  separation.  —  The  invention,  develop- 
ment and  perfection  of  the  centrifugal  separator  has 

*  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulls.  151  and  171. 


178  Milk  and   Its  Products 

been  the  chief  factor  in  revolutionizing  methods  of 
butter -making.  By  its  greater  efficiency  it  has  pre- 
vented otherwise  unavoidable  losses,  and  by  its  greater 
economy  of  labor  it  has  rendered  possible  the  devel- 
opment of  a  profitable  industry  in  many  localities 
where  it  would  have  been  otherwise  im  possible  e 

In  separating  cream  in  a  centrifugal  machine,  the 
centrifugal  force  generated  in  a  rapidly  revolving 
bowl  is  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  force  of  grav- 
ity acting  upon  the  milk  at  rest  in  a  vessel.  The 
amount  of  force  generated  is  so  much  greater  than 
the  force  of  gravity  that  the  separation  of  the  par- 
ticles of  fat  is  much  more  rapid  and  much  more 
complete.  The  force,  however,  acts  in  a  horizontal 
instead  of  a  vertical  direction.  In  1877,  a  patent  was 
granted  to  Le  Feldt  &  Lentsch  for  a  machine  to  sepa- 
rate milk  by  centrifugal  force.  This  first  centrifugal 
separator  consisted  merely  of  a  series  of  buckets  hung 
upon  arms  swinging  from  a  central  axis.  When  the 
machine  was  at  rest  the  buckets  assumed  a  vertical 
position,  but  in  motion  they  were  thrown  out  horizon- 
tally from  the  arms.  The  milk  was  placed  in  these 
buckets,  the  machine  set  in  motion  until  the  cream 
was  separated  from  the  skimmed  milk,  and  when  the 
machine  was  allowed  to  come  to  a  stand- still  the 
buckets  assumed  a  vertical  position,  and  the  cream 
was  removed  from  the  top  in  the  same  way  that  it 
was  skimmed  from  any  other  vessel.  From  this  was 
evolved  a  machine  consisting  of  a  revolving  bowl 
or  drum  in  which  the  separation  takes  place,  with 
arrangements  for  removing  the  skimmed  milk  and 


Structure   of    Centrifugal   Separator 


179 


cream  without    stopping    the    machine,    thus    making 
the  separation  continuous. 

This  constituted  the  first  practical  cream  separator. 
It  was  the  invention  of  Dr.  Gustaf  de  Laval,  a 
Swedish  inventor. 

The  various  parts 
of  the  machine  have 
since  been  much 
improved  in  minor 
details.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  essen- 
tial parts  of  a  sepa- 
rator are  the  bowl, 
with  or  without 
internal  devices  or 
arrangements  to  as- 
sist in  the  separa- 
tion of  the  cream 
from  the  milk,  an 
outlet  for  the  skimmed  milk,  an  outlet  for  the  cream, 
an  inflow  for  the  whole  milk,  and  the  proper  mechani- 
cal means  for  revolving  the  bowl.  (The  more  com- 
mon types  of  separator  bowls  are  shown  in  Figs. 
10-13.)  Usually  the  bowl  is  driven  in  an  upright 
position,  but  there  are  separators  in  which  the  bowl 
is  driven  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  in  the  greater 
number  of  machines  the  walls  of  the  bowl  are  cylin- 
drical. In  the  process  of  separation  the  milk  flows 
into  the  bowl,  and,  partaking  of  the  centrifugal  force, 
is  forced  to  the  extreme  outer  edge  of  the  bowl. 
As  the  milk  continues  to  flow  in,  the  bowl  begins 


Fig.  21.  Dr.  Ghistaf  de  Laval,  inventor  of  the 
first  practical  centrifugal  cream  separator 


180 


Milk   and   Its  Products 


to  fill  from  the  outside  toward  the  center.  The  cen- 
trifugal force  acting  more  strongly  upon  those  parts 
of  the  milk  which  have  the  greatest  specific  gravity, 
they  are  thrown  to  the  extreme  outside,  and  the 
lighter  portions,  the  fat  globules,  with  whatever  may 
adhere  to  them,  are  forced  to  the  center.  Attached 
to  the  extreme  outer  edge  of  the  bowl  are  one  or 
more  tubes,  which,  bending  inward  along  the  side  of 
the  bowl,  find  an  opening  near  the  center.  These 
are  the  outlets  for  the  skimmed  milk.  From  the 
extreme  center  of  the  bowl,  also  leading  to  the  out- 
side, is  the  cream  outlet.  When  the  bowl  becomes  filled 
with  milk,  the  centrifugal  "I/  pressure  will  force 
out  through  the  skimmed  milk  outlets  the  milk 


Fig.  22. 

Section  of  separator  bowl  of  plain 
or  "Hollow  Bowl"  type. 


Theory    of    Centrifugal    Separation  181 

nearest  the  outside  of  the  bowl.  These  outlets  are  made 
of  such  size  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  bowl, 
the  speed  of  the  machine,  and  the  size  of  the  inflow 
tube,  that  they  have  a  capacity  of  discharging  the 
milk  from  .4  to  .9  as  fast  as  it  runs  in;  the  remain- 
ing contents  of  the  bowl  are  then  forced  toward  the 
center,  and  find  an  exit  through  the  cream  outlet. 
In  this  way  the  milk  as  it  enters  is  divided  into 
two  portions:  one,  the  larger,  drawn  from  the  ex- 
treme outer  portion  of  the  bowl,  consisting  of 
skimmed  milk,  and  the  other,  the  smaller,  escaping 
from  the  center  of  the  bowl,  the  cream.  A  third 
portion  also  usually  accompanies  centrifugal  sepa- 
ration. A  part  of  the  semi-solid  constituents  of 
the  milk,  being  heavier  than  the  milk  serum,  are 
thrown  to  the  outside  of  the  bowl,  and  adhere  to 
the  walls  in  the  form  of  a  creamy  or  gelatinous  mass 
which  is  ordinarily  called  separator  slime.  It  consists 
mainly  of  albuminous  matter  with  some  fat  globules 
adhering,  and  any  p'articles  of  dirt  or  foreign  mat- 
ter that  may  be  mechanically  mixed  with  the  milk. 
It  varies  greatly  at  different  times  and  seasons. 
Usually  the  amount  is  not  large,  but  not  infrequently 
it  is  sufficient  to  clog  the  outlets  of  the  separator 
after  a  run  of  an  hour  or  two.  The  separator  slime  is 
largely  composed  of  matter  deleterious  to  the  qual- 
ity of  cream  and  butter,  and  its  removal  is  to  a 
great  extent  a  purification  of  the  cream.  The  various 
conditions  affecting  this  operation  are  as  follows: 

Conditions  affecting  the  completeness  of  separation. — 
The  completeness  of  the  separation  is  dependent  upon 


182  Milk   and.  Its    Products 

the  centrifugal  force  generated,  the  rate  of  inflow, 
the  temperature  of  the  milk,  and  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  milk. 

The  amount  of  centrifugal  force  generated  depends 
upon  the  diameter  of  the  bowl  and  the  velocity  of 
rotation. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  centrifugal  force  increases 
directly  in  proportion  as  the  diameter  is  increased  and 
directly  with  the  square  of  the  velocity.  The  larger 
the  bowl,  then,  and  the  greater  the  speed,  the  greater 
the  centrifugal  force  and  the  more  complete  the  sep- 
aration. The  rate  of  inflow  of  milk  affects  the 
separation,  because  the  separation  is  more  complete 
the  longer  the  milk  is  subjected  to  the  centrifugal 
force,  and  the  slower  the  milk  flows  into  a  given- 
sized  bowl  the  longer  any  particle  will  be  in  flowing 
through  it  and  the  more  completely  will  the  cream 
be  separated.  The  temperature  of  the  milk  affects 
the  fluidity  of  the  fat  globules  and  their  ease  of  mo- 
tion upon  the  other  particles  of  the  milk;  the  warmer 
the  milk  the  more  easily  are  they  separated. ;  Jk 
temperature  of  76°  to  98°  F.  is  the  one  commonly 
employed  because  of  the  effect  upon  the  texture  of 
the  butter.  It  is  desirable  that  the  milk  should  be 
separated  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  possible  without 
interfering  with  the  completeness  of  the  separation, 
so  that,  other  things  being  equal,  that  separator  is  the 
best  that  separates  the  milk  at  the  lowest  tempera- 
ture. The  physical  condition  of  the  milk  affects 
separation  by  the  centrifugal  in  the  same  ways  that 
gravity  creaming  is  affected,  but  to  a  very  much 


Relative  Amount  Skimmed  Milk  and  Cream     183 

slighter  degree.  Small -sized  fat  globules,  viscosity  of 
the  milk,  and  coagulation  of  part  of  the  casein  by 
incipient  fermentations,  all  tend  to  make  separation 
more  difficult;  but  in  a  majority  of  cases,  unless  the 
milk  is  so  sour  as  to  be  coagulated,  it  may  be  completely 
creamed  with  a  centrifugal  separator,  but  will  require 
a  slower  feeding  (a  reduction  of  10  to  15  per  cent  will 
usually  suffice),  and  a  higher  speed  of  the  bowl,  or  both. 
Conditions  affecting  the  relative  amount  of  skimmed 
milk  and  cream. — The  relative  amount  of  skimmed 
milk  and  cream  is  affected  by  the  rate  of  inflow, 
by  the  speed  of  the  bowl,  by  various  special  con- 
trivances upon  the  machines  themselves,  and  to  a 
slight  extent  by  the  temperature  of  the  milk.  In 
the  ordinary  machine  the  size  of  the  skimmed  milk 
outlet  is  fixed,  and  therefore  at  a  given  velocity  the 
outlet  will  discharge  a  nearly  uniform  quantity  of 
fluid.  If  then,  the  milk  is  turned  into  the  bowl  at 
such  a  rate  that  .8  of  it  escapes  through  the  skimmed 
milk  outlet,  we  shall  have  .8  skimmed  milk  and 
.2  cream.  If  now  we  reduce  the  rate  of  inflow 
by  .1,  we  shall  get  just  as  much  skimmed  milk  as 
before,  but  only  one -half  as  much  cream;  or  if  the 
inflow  is  increased  by  .1,  we  shall  get  the  same 
amount  of  skimmed  milk  and  once  and  a  half  as 
much  cream.  If  under  the  first  conditions  all  of  the 
fat  was  gathered  into  the  cream,  we  shall  have  just 
as  complete  a  separation  as  before,  but  shall  simply 
get  a  cream  containing  a  greater  or  less  percentage 
of  fat,  provided  that  the  increase  of  inflow  has  not 
increased  the  total  amount  above  the  capacity  of  the 


184  Milk   and  Its   Products 

machine.  In  other  words,  the  greater  the  inflow, 
the  more  cream  and  the  thinner  the  cream;  the 
smaller  the  inflow,  the  less  cream  and  the  richer  the 
cream.  These  varations  can  only  take  place  within 
comparatively  narrow  limits.  If  we  increase  the  in- 
flow too  much,  we  shall  soon  reach  a  point  at  which 
the  milk  passes  so  rapidly  through  the  machine  that 
the  separation  is  not  complete,  and  if  we  reduce  the 
inflow  to  such  a  point  that  the  skimmed  milk  outlet 
has  a  capacity  of  discharging  the  milk  as  fast  as  it 
flows  in,  we  shall  get  a  separation  until  the  bowl 
becomes  filled,  and  then  all  of  the  milk  will  pass 
out  of  the  skimmed  milk  outlet  in  the  same  condi 
tion  in  which  it  enters  the  machine. 

The  speed  of  the  machine,  also,  affects  the  rela- 
tive amount  of  cream  and  its  percentage  of  fat.  The 
size  of  the  skimmed  milk  outlet  being  fixed,  the 
faster  the  bowl  is  revolved  the  greater  the  capacity 
of  this  outlet  will  be,  so  that,  the  rate  of  inflow 
remaining  uniform,  the  faster  the  bowl  is  revolved 
the  less  proportional  amount  of  cream  we  shall  have, 
and  the  richer  it  will  be  in  fat,  and  vice  versa.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind,  further,  that  the  speed  of 
the  bowl  is  also  an  important  factor  in  the  complete- 
ness of  separation,  and  that  if  the  speed  is  slackened 
in  order  to  get  a  greater  bulk  of  cream,  there  will 
be  danger  of  incomplete  separation. 

Most  of  the  machines  have  arrangements  for  reg- 
ulating the  relative  amount  of  skimmed  milk  and 
cream  without  changing  the  rate  of  inflow  or  the 
speed  of  the  machine.  In  most  of  the  machines 


Modifications   in    Structure   of  Bowl  185 

this  arrangement  is  known  as  a  "cream  screw,"  and 
affects  the  amount  of  cream  by  placing  the  cream 
outlet  nearer  or  farther  from  the  center  of  the  bowl; 
the  nearer  the  center  the  cream  screw  is  turned,  the 
thicker  will  be  the  cream  and  the  smaller  the  amount. 
Some  of  the  separators  change  the  proportion  of 
cream  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  capacity  of  the 
skimmed  milk  outlet.  If  the  capacity  of  the  skim- 
med milk  outlet  be  decreased,  necessarily  the  amount 
of  the  cream  will  be  increased,  and  vice  versa. 

The  temperature  of  the  milk  only  slightly  affects 
the  proportion  of  skimmed  milk  and  cream.  The 
warmer  the  milk,  the  more  fluid  it  is,  and  the  faster  it 
will  pass  through  the  various  openings  of  the  machine. 
Slightly  more  milk  at  85°  will  run  through  the  same 
inflow  than  at  70°,  and  a  large  part  of  this  increase 
will  be  found  in  the  cream.  The  pressure  of  the  milk 
in  the  vat  above  the  machine  will  materially  affect  the 
rate  of  inflow,  and  a  few  inches  will  make  a  difference 
of  two  or  three 
hundred  pounds 
per  hour  on  a 
large -sized  ma- 
chine. 

Contrivances 
in  the  bowl  to 
increase  the  effi- 
ciency of  sepa- 
ration.—  In  the 

first      Separators  Fig.  23.  a,  Sectional  view  of  old  style  "Hollow" 

-,,,,,        separator  bowl;    b,  Sectional  view  of  "Alpha- Disc" 
made,    the    bowl       separator  bowl. 


186 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


Fig.  24.  Section  of 
separator  bowl  of 
"  travel "  type. 


aid  in  the  completeness 
of  the  separation  or  to 
increase  the  capacity. 
These  contrivances  have 
been  of  two  general  types: 
one  to  break  up  the  wall 
of  milk,  and  so  give  the 
particles  of  milk  and 
cream  a  better  chance  to 
pass  by  one  another  in 
their  passage  from  the 
center  to  the  outside  of 
the  bowl;  the  other,  a 
series  of  interruptions  to 


was  hollow,  and 
the  separation 
was  caused  di- 
rectly by  the 
centrifugal  pres- 
sure acting  upon 
the  milk  in  a 
mass.  In  the 
later  machines, 
various  contri- 
van  ces  have 
been  introduced 
in  the  bowl  to 


Fig.  25.   The  Sim- 
plex  separator. 


Mechanical  Conditions  Affecting  Separation       187 


the  passage  of  the  milk  from  its 
entrance  at  the  center  to  the  outside, 
causing  it  to  travel  a  much  greater 
distance  and  be  subjected  to  the 
centrifugal  force  for  a  longer  time. 
These  contrivances,  while  adding  to 
the  complexity  of  the  machine,  have 
increased  the  capacity  and  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  separation.  The  best 
known  of  these  contrivances  aVe  the 
so-called  "Alpha"  discs  or 


Pig.  27.   United  States  separator. 


Fig.  26.   Parts  of  United  States 
separator  bowl. 

plates, — a  series  of  cup- 
shaped  plates,  nearly  fill- 
ing the  bowl  of  the 
separator.  These  Alpha 
plates  nearly  double  the 
separating  capacity  of 
the  hollow  bowl  of  the 


188 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


same  diameter,  and  at  the  same  time  the  efficiency  of 
separation  is  increased. 

In  the  latest  developments  in  separator  construction 
various  other  devices  intended  to  secure  the  same  end 


Fig.  28.    Tubular  separator 

have  been  more  or  less  successfully  used.  Among  the 
more  recent  of  these  the  simplex  (Fig.  25)  and  the 
tubular  (Fig.  28)  should  be  mentioned.  The  latter  has 
been  particularly  successful  in  securing  efficiency  by 
making  the  bowl  very  long  and  of  very  small  diameter 
and  running  it  at  a  comparatively  high  speed. 


Mechanical  Conditions  Affecting  Separation      189 


Mechanical  conditions  ivhich  affect  separ- 
ation.— Certain  peculiarities  in  the  con- 
struction or  operation  of  "the  machine 
often  materially  influence  the  efficiency  of 
separation.  One  of  the  most  important  of 
these  is  that  the  bowl  should  run  steadily 
and  smoothly,  without  any  preceptible  jar 
or  trembling.  The  trembling 
of  the  bowl  may  be  caused  by 
lack  of  perfect  balancing  in  the 
bowl  itself.  This  can  be  rem- 
edied only  by  the  manufacturer. 
The  bowl  may  tremble,  also, 
because  the  bearings  are  not 
perfectly  adjusted;  and,  lastly, 
the  bowl  may  tremble  because 
the  machine  is  not  set  level  or 
upon  a  solid  foundation.  Often 
a  bowl  will  tremble  somewhat 
while  it  is  speeding  up  but 
will  run  smoothly  when  full 
speed  is  attained;  such  a  bowl, 
however,  will  seldom  work  as 
perfectly  as  one  that  is  so 
balanced  that  it  will  run  at 
any  and  all  speeds  without 
perceptible  jar.  A  second 


65- 


3- 


Stei 


27, 


cause  of   inefficient  separa- 
ation    is    variation    in    the 


velocity  of   the  bowl.    It  is 


Fig.  29. 
Parts  of  tubu- 
lar bowl,       quite  as  important  that  the 


Fig.  30.  Section  of 
tubular  separator.  A, 
skim  milk  vent ;  B.  cream 
vent;  O.  milk  inlet;  L>. 
wing;  3,  bowl;  4,  bowl 


190  Milk   and   Its   Products 

bowl  run  uniformly  as  it  is  that  it  attain  any  given 
rate  of  velocity.  In  this  respect  the  turbine  separators 
are  more  likely  to  be  at  fault  than  those  run  by  belt 
power,  and  separators  turned  by  hand  are  more  subject 
to  variations  than  those  run  by  power. 

An  engine  of  ample  power,  with  a  good  governor, 
and  the  power  transmitted  through  an  intermediate  rope 
belt  kept  perfectly  tightened,  with  well-oiled  bearings 
all  around,  are  the  best  safeguards  to  uniform  speed. 

Efficiency  of  separation  in  centrifugal  machines. — 
With  the  centrifugal  separator  run  under  perfect  con- 
ditions, there  is  still  a  slight  loss  of  fat  in  the 
skimmed  milk.  This  should  not  be  greater  than  .1 
of  1  per  cent.  At  the  present  time  it  is  considered 
that  where  as  much  as  .1  of  1  per  cent  of  fat  is  left 
in  the  skimmed  milk  a  centrifugal  machine  is  doing 
such  poor  work  that  its  use  in  a  commercial  plant  would 
be  unwarranted.  The  following  tables*  taken  from  the 
average  of  a  large  number  of  tests  made  by  several  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  may  be  taken  as  repre- 
senting the  degree  of  efficiency  that  had  been  attained 
by  the  leading  manufacturers  at  the  time  when  separa- 
tors first  came  into  general  use  (1890-95)  and  the  first 
table  is  compiled  wholly  from  American  sources.  At 
the  present  time  no  separator  should  be  kept  in  use 
that  will  leave  more  than  two  or  three  hundredths  of 
one  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skimmed  milk  in  a  series  of 
tests  running  day  after  day  under  ordinary  factory 
conditions. 

*Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bi;lletin  No.  105. 


Relative  Efficiency  of  Separators 


191 


Name  of  machine. 

Per  cent  of  fat  in  skimmed  milk. 

Average. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

By  series. 

Of  all 
trials. 

.11 
.22 
.12 
.08 

.od 

.16 
.12 
.16 

Accumulator 
Alexandra  Jumbo   .    . 
Columbia       
Danish  Weston    .    .    . 
DeLaval     ...       . 

.12 
.22 
.09 
.10 
.13 
.27 
.18 
.21 

.01 
.15 
.05 
.01 
.01 
.05 
.01 
.05 

.20 
.33 
.34 
.25 
.50 
.65 
.60 
.38 

Sharpies  
United  States  .... 
Victoria 

A  series  of  trials  made  in  Germany*  shows  a  con- 
siderable variation  in  the  various  styles,  and,  on  the 
whole,  a  rather  less  efficiency  than  has  been  obtained 
in  this  country,  as  is  seen  in  the  table  following : 


Name  of  machine. 

Revolutions 
of  bowl 
per  min- 
ute. 

Pounds 
separated 
per  hour. 

Tempera- 
ture of 
milk  F. 

Per  cent 
of  fat  in 
skimmed 
milk. 

Number 
of  trials. 

Alpha  B     '    '    ' 
Alpha  Baby  .    . 
Baby 

5,100 
6,900 
6,360 

537 

286 
129 

92 

72 
88 

.23 
.23 

.18 

37 
23 
15 

Victoria  . 
Small  Danish  . 
Large  Danish  . 
Adjustable  .  .    . 
Arnold's    .    .    . 
Medium  Brown 

7,241 
7,217 
8,640 
8,531 
4,037 

205 
288 
411 
363 
458 
268 

92 
90 
91 

70 
90 
91 

.17 

.28 
.35 
.10 
.28 
.37 

19 
16 
16 
3 
26 
16 

But  while  all  the  forms  of  separators  can  be  made 
to   do   perfect   work,    there   is   more   or  less  variation 


*  Milch  Zeitung,  xxiii.,  p.  296. 


192 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


in  the  work  done  by  the  different  machines  of  the 
same  style  and  manufacture.  This  variation  is  due 
to  slight  peculiarities  in  the  construction  of  the  in- 
dividual bowls,  and  which  cannot  be  detected  by 
the  ordinary  senses,  and  only  appear  upon  an  ex- 
amination of  the  skimmed  milk  after  actual  use. 
These  differences  are  well  illustrated  in  a  series  of 
trials  made  in  different  factories,*  and  shown  in 
detail  in  the  following  tables: 


ALEXANDRA  JUMBO 

Rated  capacity,  3,000  pounds  per  hour 


Average 

Pounds 

Date. 

No. 
ol- 
fac- 
tory. 

of 

milk 
in  whole 

Average 
temper- 
ature. 

Range 
of 
temper- 
ature. 

speed  of 
bowl, 
revolu- 
tions per 

Range 
of 
speed. 

sepa- 
rated 
per 
hour. 

Per  cent 
of  fat  in 
skimmed 
milk. 

minute. 

Aug.  19. 

7 

3,809 

70 

66-75 

7,200 

7,000-7,400 

1,344 

.25 

'     20. 

8 



*  70 

68-72 

6,985 

6,800-7,200 

1,170 

.15 

1,611 

.20 

'     21. 

9 

5,928 

75 

72-81 

6,900 

6,600-7,100 

1,882 

.20 

1     23. 

11 

4,052 

84 

80-86 

6,600 

6,200-7,400 

1,814 

.33 

74 

6  854 

1  *i64 

23 

DE   LAVAL,  ALPHA  NO.  1 

Bated  capacity,  2,500  pounds  per  hour 


July  17. 

3 

2,519 

80 

78-85 

5,520 

4,800-6,100 

2,606 

.08 

Aug.  18. 

6 

3,629 

74 

73-76 

5,806 

5,700-6,000 

2,592 

.05 

Sep.  16. 

17 

1,187 

72 

71-73 

5,933 

5,800-6,000 

2,456 

.08 

^   20. 

22 

4,627 

82 

80-83 

6,071 

5,800-6,200 

2,501 

.04 

"     21. 

23 

6,376 

78 

77-80 

0,044 

6,000-6,200 

2,500 

.03 

Oct.    4. 

24 

5,588 

82 

78-85 

5,844 

5,600-6,000 

2,747 

.13 

4. 

25 

1,802 

86 

85-90 

6,280 

6,000-6,400 

2,040 

.03 

Average 

.... 

79 

5,928 

2,491 

.06. 

*  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  105. 


Variations  in   Machines  of  Same   Style 


DE     LAVAL,     BABY 

Rated  capacity,  No.  2,  350;  No.  3,  600  pounds  per  hour 


Date. 

No. 
of 
fac- 
tory. 

Pound  s 
of 
milk  in 
whole 
'run. 

Average 
temper- 
ature. 

Range 
of 
temper- 
ature. 

Average 
speed  of 
bowl, 
revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Range 
of 
speed. 

Pounds 
separ- 
ated 
per 
hour. 

Per  cent 
of  fat  in 
skimmed 
milk. 

Rev.  crank 

Sep.  14. 
18 

14 
19 

146 

83 

81  86 

46 
4fi 

•  

.05 
.06 

Average 

90 

49 

333 

09 

DE     LAVAL,     STANDARD 

Rated  capacity,   1,100  pounds  per  hour 


Rev.  bowl 

Sep.  19. 

21 

— 

73 

71-75 

7,914 

7,700-8,200 

1,020 

.25 

r    19. 

21 

— 

73 

71-75 

8,140 

7,600-8,400 

930 

.15 

'     19. 

21 

— 

72 

71-75 

8,300 

8,000-8,500 

1,000 

.16 

Average 

73 

8,118 



983 

.19 

SHARPLES    RUSSIAN 

Rated  capacity,   Standard,  1,100  pounds;  Imperial, 
per    hour 


1,000  pounds 


July  16. 

2 



84 

83-87 

7,775 

7,700-7,900 

2,100 

.40 

July  16. 

2 

—  _  

88 

87-88 

7,183 

7,000-7,500 

2,130 

.65 

Aug.  17. 

5 

1,718 

80 

78-82 

7,800 

7,700-7,900 

1,874 

.10 

Aug.  24. 

12 

4,028 

81 

80-82 

7,700 

7,100-8,300 

1,033 

.05 

Sept.  14. 

13 

2,509 

85 

84-86 

7,433 

6,800-7,600 

1,158 

.13 

Sept.  17. 

18 

3,562 

87 

82-95 

7,558 

7,200-7,900 

1,752 

.45 

Oct.     6. 

18 

2,716 

90 

87-91 

7,675 

7,400-7,900 

1,873 

.38 

85 

7  589 

1  703 

31 

UNITED   STATES 

Rated  capacity,  2,000  pounds  per  hour 


July  18. 
Aug.  22. 
Sept.  15. 
Sept.  15. 
Sept.  18. 

4 
10 
15 
16 
20 

83 
81 
94 
88 
78 

82-84 
79-91 
90-98 
80-100 
77-80 

7,120 
7,025 
7,600 
6,075 
6,586 

7,000-7,200 
6,800-7,300 
7,200-8,000 
5,600-6,600 
6,400-6,800 

2,220 
1,964 
1,403 
1,650 
2,176 

.18 
.25 
.08 
.38 
.60 

3,962 
1,870 
3,850 
2,902 

Average 



85 

6,881 

1,883 

.30 

M 


194  Milk   and   Its   Products 

These  slight  differences  in  individual  bowls  are 
common  to  all  of  the  different  kinds  of  machines,  so 
far  as  is  known,  and  this  being  the  case,  it  is  al- 
ways due  to  the  purchaser  that  he  should  secure  from 
the  manufacturer  a  guarantee  that  any  given  ma- 
chine will  do  work  of  a  certain  grade  of  efficiency. 

Other  desirable  and  undesirable  features  of  a  sepa- 
rator.— Other  things  being  equal,  that  separator  is  the 
best  which  will  skim  clean  at  the  lowest  temperature 
and  with  the  least  number  of  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. Other  details  of  construction  being  equally 
good,  and  the  capacities  being  the  same,  that  separator 
will  run  the  easiest  whose  diameter  is  least.  A  ma- 
chine of  small  diameter  not  only  runs  easier,  but  is 
less  easily  thrown  out  of  balance.  The  cream  should 
be  delivered  in  a  smooth  stream  of  uniform  density, 
and  the  cream  outlet  should  be  of  such  form  that 
a  heavy  cream  may  pass  through  it  without  danger 
of  clogging.  The  bowl  should  be  so  constructed  that 
all  parts  may  be  readily  reached  with  the  hand  and 
thoroughly  and  easily  cleaned. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE  RIPENING   OF  CREAM 

BY  the  ripening  process  is  meant  all  the  treatment 
which  the  cream  receives  from  the  time  that  it  is  sep- 
arated from  the  milk  until  it  is  put  into  the  churn. 
Upon  this  treatment,  and  the  changes  that  the  cream 
undergoes,  very  largely  depend  the  quality  of  the  butter 
as  regards  texture  and  flavor.  The  texture  of  the 
butter  is  very  largely  influenced  by  the  changes  of  tem- 
perature that  are  brought  about  during  the  ripening 
process.  It  seems  to  be  essential  to  the  production  of 
a  firm,  solid  texture  in  the  butter  that  the  cream,  at 
some  time  during  the  ripening  process,  should  be  sub- 
jected to  a  constant  temperature  below  50°  F.  for  sev- 
eral hours.  When  cream  has  been  separated  by  a 
gravity  process,  particularly  by  a  "deep  setting"  one, 
it  has  already  experienced  the  effects  of  such  a  tem- 
perature, and  is  ready  for  ripening  as  soon  as  re- 
moved from  the  milk.  But  when  cream  is  separated 
by  a  centrifugal  separator,  the  temperature  as  it  comes 
from  the  separator  is  rather  high,  and  butter  of  good 
texture  cannot  be  made  unless  the  cream  is  cooled 
down  and  held  cool  for  several  hours  before  ripening 
has  far  advanced.  The  first  step,  then,  in  the  ripen- 
ing process  with  separator  cream  is  to  reduce  its 

(195) 


196  Milk  and  Its  Products 

temperature  as  rapidly  and  as  uniformly  as  possible 
to  at  least  50°  F.,  and  to  hold  it  there  for  as  long 
a  time  as  is  convenient,  usually  six  to  eight  hours. 
Another  point  which  influences  the  texture  of  the 
butter  depends  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the  vari- 
ous changes  of  temperature  are  made,  and  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  that  are  used.  That  butter  will 
have  the  best  texture  which  has  seen  the  fewest  pos- 
sible changes  of  temperature  between  the  time  the  milk 
is  drawn  from  the  cow  and  the  time  it  is  churned, 
and  in  which  also  all  the  necessary  changes  of  tem- 
perature have  been  made  most  gradually.  Not  only 
will  such  butter  have  the  best  texture  at  low  tem- 
peratures, but  it  will  stand  the  effects  of  high  tem- 
peratures better.  In  other  words,  it  "  stands  up " 
under  the  heat  better  than  butter  that  during  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture  has  been  .subject  to  sudden  and 
great  changes  of  temperature,  although  the  final  result 
may  have  been  to  keep  it  at  a  low  temperature. 
The  effects  of  ripening  are  more  important  and  more 
marked  upon  the  flavor  of  the  butter  than  upon  the 
texture.  It  is  during  the  ripening  that  the  charac- 
teristic flavors  of  the  butter  are  largely  brought  out. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  the  manufacture  of  the  butter 
itself  that  the  cream  be  ripened  at  all.  Butter  may 
be  made  from  cream  just  as  soon  as  it  is  separated 
from  the  milk,  but  it  will  be  of  a  distinctly  different 
quality  from  that  made  from  ripened  cream.  By 
ripening  in  the  ordinary  sense  is  meant  the  produc- 
tion of  lactic  acid  in  the  cream. 

In    some    attempts    to   substitute    other    acids    for 


Origin   of  Butter   Flavors  197 

lactic  acid  in  ripening,  Tiemann*  found  that  in  cream 
to  which  a  small  amount  of  hydrochloric  acid  had 
been  added  there  was  no  difficulty  in  churning  the 
butter,  that  the  general  flavor  of  the  butter  was 
good,  but  that  it  lacked  in  aroma  and  had  a  some- 
what oily  texture. 

There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
characteristic  flavors  which  are  developed  in  the  cream 
during  the  ripening  process.  These  flavors  are  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  presence  of  certain  volatile  sub- 
stances— fats,  bacterial  products,  or  ether -like  com- 
pounds— which  are  formed  during  the  ripening  pro- 
cess. It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  production 
of  the  characteristic  flavors  was  almost  wholly  a  pro- 
cess of  oxidation,  and  that  cream,  in  order  to  be  prop- 
erly ripened,  and  to  develop  the  best  flavors,  must  be 
supplied  with  an  abundance  of  oxygen  in  pure  air 
during  the  process.  Our  knowledge  of  the  presence  of 
germs  in  milk  and  cream  and  the  effect  of  their 
growth  upon  the.  various  constituents  of  the  milk,  has 
led  us  to  modify  these  views.  At  the  present  time  it 
seems  probable  that  the  growth  of  germs  which  pro- 
duce lactic  acid  has  much  to  do  with  the  production 
of  the  characteristic  flavors  of  ripened  cream.  It  has 
been  asserted  by  some,  notably  Conn,  that  the  produc- 
tion of  the  flavors  is  due  to  the  growth  of  specific 
flavor -producing  germs  that  are  largely  independent  of 
the  formation  of  lactic  acid,  but  this  view  does  not 
seem  to  explain  all  of  the  phenomena  of  the  appear- 


*Milch  Zeitung,  xxiii  p.  701. 


198  Milk   and   Its   Products 

ance  of  such  flavors,  and  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
that  the  flavors  are  not  in  part  produced  as  the  result 
of  direct  oxidation.  It  is  found  in  practice  that  the 
regulation  of  the  production  of  lactic  acid  is  the 
chief  means  in  controlling  the  flavor. 

The  means  of  producing  lactic  acid. — In  order  that 
the  milk  or  cream  should  ripen,  or  become  sour,  it 
is  necessary  that  germs  of  lactic  acid  fermentations 
should  gain  access  to  it,  and  that  a  temperature  favor- 
able to  their  normal  development  should  be  secured. 
The  presence  of  the  germs  may  be  left  to  chance 
inoculation,  or  they  may  be  artificially  supplied. 
Under  ordinary  conditions,  "by  the  time  the  cream  has 
been  separated  from  the  milk,  there  will  have  reached 
it  a  sufficient  number  of  germs  of  fermentation  to 
cause  a  rapid  production  of  lactic  acid,  though  the 
number  will  vary  from  day  to  day  and  from  time  to 
time,  and  a  certain  amount  of  acid  cannot  be  de- 
pended upon  within  any  given  specified  time.  The 
inoculation  is  more  certain,  and  the  desired  degree 
of  acidity  will  be  more  surely  reached,  at  the  end 
of  a  given  time,  if  the  germs  are  added  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  artificially.  The  source  of  the  inocu- 
lation may  be  buttermilk  or  cream  from  preceding 
churnings,  or  it  may  be  in  the  form  of  an  artificially 
prepared  "starter"  of  sour  skimmed  milk,  or  it  may 
be  in  the  form  of  any  of  the  so-called  commercial 
lactic  ferments.  It  is  desirable  that  none  but  the 
proper  germs  should  find  access  to  the  milk,  and 
in  relying  upon  natural  means  there  is  always  more 
or  less  danger  that  putrefactive  and  other  undesirable 


Commercial   Lactic   Ferments  199 

ferments  may  gain  access  to  the  cream.  As  between 
the  various  forms  of  artificial  starter,  there  is  not 
much  to  be  said.  It  is  generally  held  that  a  starter 
made  from  skimmed  milk  is  less  likely  to  contain 
germs  other  than  those  desired  than  when  cream, 
whole  milk,  or  even  buttermilk  are  used. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  various  commer- 
cial bacterial  ferments,  there  is  considerable  diversity 
of  opinion.  Their  use  was  first  recommended  several 
years  ago  in  Denmark,  as  a  result  of  the  researches 
of  S torch,  and  has  grown  rapidly,  both  in  Denmark 
and  Germany,  until  at  the  present  time  a  large  part 
of  the  butter  produced  in  the  former  country  is  made 
from  cream  first  pasteurized,  and  then  ripened  with 
the  aid  of  an  artificial  bacteria  culture.  The  use 
of  such  ferments  has  now  largely  extended  to  this 
country,  also  chiefly  through  the  medium  of  Hansen's 
lactic  ferment. 

In  this  country  Conn  has  been  the  chief  investi- 
gator of  similar  organisms.  From  1890  to  1893*  he 
isolated  several  organisms,  the  culture  of  which  in 
cream  improved  the  flavor  of  the  resulting  butter 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  In  the  latter  year  he 
discovered  in  a  can  of  milk  sent  from  Uruguay  to 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago,  a 
germ  so  much  better  in  this  respect  that  it  alone 
has  since  been  used,  and  cultures'  of  it  placed  upon 
the  market  under  the  name  of  B.41  (Bacillus  No. 41). 

A  series  of  investigations  by  Farrington  and  Rus- 


*Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Reports  1890-93. 


200 


Milk   and  Its   Products 


sell,*  in  which  a  large  number  of  samples  of  butter 
were  made  from  cream  ripened  by  the  use  of  B.  41, 
and  in  the  ordinary  way,  or  "  normally,"  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  judgment  of  several  experts  who  were 
ignorant  of  the  process  of  manufacture,  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  "Conn  culture,  B.  41,  did  not 
improve  the  flavor  of  the  separator  butter  ripened 
for  one  day  at  a  high  temperature,  or  of  that  ripened 
for  a  longer  time  at  a  lower  temperature ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  score  of  the  fresh  B.  41  butter  by 
the  different  judges  was,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
materially  lower  than  that  of  normal  butter.  *  *  * 
With  separator  butter  in  cold  storage,  that  made  with 
B.  41  deteriorated  less  than  did  the  normal  butter. 
When  taken  from  storage  there  was  but  little  differ- 
ence in  flavor  between  these  two  butters,  although 
the  normal  butter  when  fresh  scored  higher." 

The  difference  in  the  flavor  of  the  two  kinds  of 
butter  when  fresh,  as  indicated  by  the  different 
judges,  is  shown  in  the  table: 


General 

Gurler. 

Barber. 

Moore. 

average 

scores. 

Number 

of    butter  packages 

scored. 

14 

14 

12 

Average 

score  of  normal  but- 

ter 

44  4 

45  3 

45.1 

45.3 

Average 

score  of  B.  41  butter. 

43.7 

44 

43 

43.9 

Difference  in  favor  of  normal 

butter 

• 

.7 

1.3 

2.1 

1.4 

*  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  48. 


Propagation   of  Starters  201 

On  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  number  of  fac- 
tories in  this  country  have  secured  an  increased  flavor 
and  quality  in  their  product  from  .  ripening  their 
cream  with  the  aid  of  either  Hansen's  ferment  or  B.  41. 

The  use  of  culture  starters  both  for  the  ripening  of 
cream  and  the  ripening  of  milk  for  cheese -making  has 
now  become  almost  universal,  particularly  in  factories, 
and  practice  in  the  culture  of  such  starters  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  training  of  all  successful  butter  and 
cheese  makers  (see  Appendix  A).  Skill  in  the  culture 
of  starters  depends  very  largely  in  keeping  everything 
surrounding  them  bacteriologically  clean,  so  that,  no 
matter  how  skilfullj'  directions  for  the  propagation  of 
starters  may  be  written,  very  few  will  learn  except 
by  actual  experience  the  necessity  for  bacteriological 
cleanliness. 

The  only  reason  for  a  starter  becoming  impure  or 
going  "off  flavor"  is  that  it  becomes  contaminated 
from  some  outside  source,  and  this  comes  from  lack  of 
care  in  handling  it  or  allowing  it  to  come  in  contact 
with  some  person  or  thing  that  is  not  sterile  or  "bac- 
teriologically clean;"  hence,  in  tasting  or  otherwise 
examining  a  starter  from  which  a  culture  is  afterward 
to  be  made,  a  portion  should  always  be  removed  from 
the  starter  with  a  clean  spoon  or  other  suitable  article, 
and  such  portion  must  be  discarded  after  the  examina- 
tion has  been  made.  The  practice  of  dipping  the  fin- 
ger into  a  starter  and  then  tasting  or  smelling  it  is 
the  best  possible  means  of  destroying  it. 

Where  a  starter  is  properly,  and  carefully  propa- 
gated, it  is  not  only  possible  to  keep  it  for  a  long  time, 


202  Milk    and   Its    Products 

perhaps  indefinitely,  but  such  a  starter  will  often 
improve  in  flavor  qualities,  particularly  if  propagated 
continuously  in  clean,  sound,  fresh,  whole  or  skimmed 
milk.  Many  butter  makers  employ  to  advantage  the 
practice  of  cultivating  continuously  in  suitable  small 
glass  vessels  several  "mother"  starters,  from  which 
they  make  selections  from  day  to  day  of  the  best 
flavored  for  use  in  ripening. 

The  use  of  starters  in  ripening  has  another  advan- 
tage in  that  it  makes  it  possible  to  first  pasteurize  the 
cream  before  ripening  and  so  get  rid  of  or  reduce  the 
effect  of  any  undesirable  fermentations  that  may  be 
already  present.  This  is  of  particular  advantage  where 
many  lots  of  cream  from  many  sources  are  brought  to 
a  central  factory  for  churning.  Such  creams  vary 
very  much,  even  where,  as  is  not  often  the  case,  none 
are  already  actually  contaminated  with  some  actually 
bad  fermentation.  By  pasteurization  and  ripening  with 
a  good,  pure  culture  starter,  such  creams  can  be  made 
into  butter  of  a  good,  uniform  quality  that  would  be 
entirely  impossible  without  pasteurization. 

The  amount  of  starter  used  will  vary  from  2  to  50 
per  cent.  Where  a  small  amount  is  used,  the  purpose 
is  to  start  and  encourage  the  development  of  lactic 
acid  through  the  whole  mass  of  cream.  Hence  some 
time  must  elapse  before  the  full  effect  of  the  starter  is 
secured.  Where  a  large  amount  is  used,  the  purpose 
is  not  so  much  to  encourage  the  formation  of  the  acid 
as  it  is  to  impart  directly  the  flavor  already  developed 
in  the  acid  of 'the  starter  itself. 

The  purer,  the  fresher,  and  the  better  flavored  the 


Temperature    of  Ripening  203 

cream  is,  the  smaller  the  amount  of  starter  it  is  desir- 
able to  use.  Large  amounts  of  starter  should  be  used 
only  in  old,  unsound  or  tainted  creams. 

Temperature  of  ripening.  —  The  various  germs  of 
lactic  fermentations  find  their  optimum  growth  point 
at  from  80°  to  90°  F.,  and  milk  or  cream  kept  at  those 
temperatures  will  most  rapidly  become  sour.  The 
effect  of  such  high  temperatures,  while  favorable  to 
the  production  of  lactic  acid,  is  less  favorable  to 
the  texture  of  the  butter,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
desirable  to  ripen  the  cream  at  as  low  a  tempera- 
ture as  will  insure  a  fairly  rapid  growth  of  the  lactic 
germs.  A  temperature  of  from  60°  to  70°  F.  will 
ordinarily  bring  this  about.  The  amount  of  acid  de- 
veloped in  any  given  length  of  time  will  depend  not 
only  upon  the  temperature  at  which  the  cream  has 
been  kept,  but  also  upon  the  number  and  activity  of 
the  germs  originally  present,  so  that  if  we  have  a 
thorough  inoculation  to  start  with,  a  lower  temper- 
ature will  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  development  of 
the  requisite  amount  of  acid ;  but  if  only  a  slight 
inoculation  is  present,  a  higher  temperature  will  be 
necessary.  Ordinarily,  there  will  be  more  germs 
present  in  the  atmosphere  during  the  warm  months 
than  in  the  winter,  consequently  a  lower  temperature 
will  bring  about  the  same  degree  of  acidity  in  a 
shorter  time  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

The  amount  of  acid  necessary .  —  The  amount  of 
acid  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  in  the  cream  at 
the  time  of  churning  depends,  of  course,  largely  upon 
the  flavors  desired  by  the  consumer.  It  is  important 


204  Milk   and   Its   Products 

that  whatever  amount  is  desired  should  be  uniform 
from  day  to  day.  By  far  the  larger  proportion  of 
consumers  prefer  the  flavors  that  are  characteristic  of 
ripening  till  sufficient  acid  to  slightly  coagulate  the 
casein  is  present.  Consumers  of  delicate  taste 
readily  distinguish  between  the  flavors  due  to  a 
greater  or  less  amount  of  acid,  and  it  is  highly  de- 
sirable that  some  means  of  determining  the  amount 
of  acid  present  be  available.  The  butter -maker  of 
trained  senses  has  little  difficulty  in  distinguishing  by 
the  somewhat  thickened  and  glistening  appearance  of 
his  cream,  when  stirred,  the  proper  condition  of  the 
cream  for  churning.  Besides  this,  there  are,  fortunately, 
more  exact  means  for  determining  the  acidity. 

Acid  tests. — Dr.  A.  G.  Manns  first  suggested  the 
use  of  an  alkali  of  known  strength  to  determine  the 
proper  acidity  of  cream  for  churning,  and  devised 
what  is  known  as  Manns'  acid  test.  It  simply  con- 
sisted in  neutralizing  the  acid  in  the  cream  with  a 
standard  alkali,  the  standard  used  being  that  known 
to  chemists  as  decinormal,  or  -£-,  and  the  acidity  was 
reckoned  in  terms  of  cubic  centimeters  of  alkali  re- 
quired to  neutralize  the  acid  in  a  given  quantity  of 
cream.  In  the  use  of  this  test,  an  indicator  which 
changes  color  according  as  the  medium  is  acid  or 
alkaline,  is  used.  A  convenient  indicator  is  phenol- 
phthalein,  which  is  colorless  in  acid  solutions  and 
pinkish  in  alkaline.  Later,  Professor  Farrington* 
devised  tablets  containing  a  known  amount  of  alkali 

*Bull.  32,  m.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.    Bull.  52,  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


Determination   of  Lactic  Acid  205 

for  the  same  purpose,  known  as  Farrington's  alkaline 
tablets.  Each  tablet  contains  an  amount  of  alkali 
equal  to  3.8  cubic  centimeters  of  decinormal  alkali, 
and  a  sufficient  amount  of  phenolphthalein  indicator. 
The  cream  to  be  tested  is  measured,  and  to  it  is 
added  a  solution  of  the  tablets  (one  tablet  in  ten 
cubic  centimeters  of  water)  until  the  cream  retains  a 
pinkish  tinge.  The  tablet  solution  should  always 
be  fresh,  not  more  than  ten  hours  old.  The  tab- 
lets themselves  will  keep  indefinitely.  TKe  proper 
degree  of  acidity  is  indictated  when  30-35  c.  c.  of 
Farrington  tablet  solution,  or  11-13  c.  c.  of  deci- 
normal alkali,  are  required  to  neutralize  the  acid  in 
20  cubic  centimeters  of  cream. 

Determination  of  lactic  acid  in  milk  or  cream. — Far- 
rington7 s  alkaline  tablets  may  also  be  conveniently 
used  to  determine  the  percentage  of  lactic  acid  in  any 
given  sample  of  milk  or  cream.  In  order  to  do  this, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  understand  that  equal  volumes 
of  normal  or  decinormal  acids  and  alkalies  neutral- 
ize each  other;  and  further,  that  a  normal  solu- 
tion of  lactic  acid  contains  90  grams  of  acid  in  each 
liter,  or  1,000  c.  c.  A  decinormal  solution  would 
contain  1-10  as  much,  or  9  grams  in  each  liter, 
and  a  cubic  centimeter  would  contain  —oVo  as  much 
as  a  liter,  or  .009  grams  of  lactic  acid.  Each 
tablet  of  the  Farrington  alkali  is  egual  in  strength 
to  3.8  c.  c.  of  decinormal  alkali,  and  if  the  tablet 
solution  is  made  by  dissolving  10  tablets  in  100  c.  c. 
of  water,  each  cubic  centimeter  of  the  solution  will 
be  equal  to  .38  c.  c.  of  decinormal  alkali,  and  will 


206  Milk   and   Its   Products 

therefore    neutralize     .38    of    .009     grams,    or    .0034 
grams,  of  lactic  acid. 

To  determine  the  percentage  of  acid  in  any 
given  sample  of  milk  or  cream,  any  convenient 
amount,  as  20  c.  c.,  of.  the  sample  to  be  tested 
is  measured  out,  and  the  tablet  solution  is 
added  from  a  burette  or  graduated  cylinder  till 
the  milk  retains  a  pinkish  tinge.  If  this  occurs 
when  1  c.  c.  of  the  tablet  solution  has  been 
added,  the  20  c.  .c.  of  milk  contain  .0034  grams 
of  lactic  acid;  but  20  c.  c.  of  milk  weigh  20.64 
grams  (sp.  gr.  milk,  1.032),  therefore  the  per- 
centage of  lactic  acid  is  .0034-^20.64=. 00017, 
or  .017  per  cent.  If  more  than  1  c.  c.  of 
the  tablet  solution  is  required  to  neutralize 
the  acid,  or  if  more  or  less  than  20  c.  c.  of 
milk  or  cream  are  taken,  the  percentage  of 
acid  will  be  found  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  cubic  centimeters  of  tablet  solution 
required  by  .0034  and  dividing  by  the 
number  of  grams  of  milk  taken  (grams 
„  of  milk=c.  c.  X  1.032). 

r  ig.  dl. 

Stte  Further  effects  of  ripening. — Besides 
affecting  the  flavor,  it  is  believed  that 
ripening  aids  in  the  ease  of  churning,  in  the 
completeness  of  churning,  and  in  improving 
the  keeping  quality  of  the  resulting  butter.  It 
was  formerly  supposed  that  sweet  cream  could 
not  be  churned  into  butter,  and,  in  fact,  with 
but  a  moderate  percentage  of  fat  (15  to  20FGSradJa- 
per  cent)  it  does  churn  with  much  more  dim*- 


JO—70 


Effects   of  Churning    Cream  207 

culty  than  the  same  cream  after  it  has  been  ripened; 
but  since  the  introduction  of  the  separator,  and  the 
consequent  production  of  a  much  heavier  cream,  it 
has  been  found  that  sweet  cream  can  be  churned  into 
butter  quite  as  readily  as  ripened  cream.  In  cream 
containing  but  a  moderate  amount  of  fat,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  temperature  from  six  to  eight 
degrees,  in  order  to  churn  it  sweet.  The  difference  in 
the  keeping  quality  of  ripened  and  sweet  cream  butter 
is  likewise  not  so  great  as  it  was  formerly  supposed  to 
be.  In  fact,  sweet  cream  butter,  if  properly  made  and 
kept,  will  in  a  short  time  very  closely  approach  the 
qualities  of  ripened  cream  butter. 

Effects  of  churning  cream  of  different  degrees  of 
ripeness. — If  parcels  of  cream  of  different  degrees 
of  ripeness  are  mixed  together  aiid  then  churned,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  different  creams  will  churn 
differently.  One  will  produce  butter  in  a  shorter 
time  than  another,  or  with  less  agitation.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  when  this  occurs  the  churn  is 
stopped  before  the  churning  is  completed,  and  much 
fat  is  lost  in  the  buttermilk.  It  is  a  matter  of 
considerable  practical  importance,  so  far  as  loss  of 
fat  is  concerned,  and  to  some  extent  also  upon  the 
flavor  of  the  butter,  that  all  of  the  cream  churned 
at  one  time  should  be  ripened  together,  evenly  and 
uniformly.  If  creams  of  different  ages  are  to  be 
churned  together  they  should  be  mixed  together  at 
least  twelve  hours  before  churning,  so  that  the  con- 
dition of  acidity  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the 
whole  mass. 


208  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Bad  effects  of  over-ripening. — When  too  much  lactic 
acid  is  developed  in  the  cream  the  casein  is  firmly 
coagulated,  and  in  the  process  of  churning  is  broken 
up  into  minute  granules,  which  become  incorpo- 
rated into  the  butter  in  the  form  of  white  specks  or 
flakes  of  casein.  Such  white  specks,  besides  injur- 
ing the  appearance  of  the  butter,  greatly  detract 
from  its  keeping  qualities,  as  the  putrefactive  fer- 
mentations soon  set  up  in  them  and  give  rise  to 
disagreeable  flavors.  Danger  from  this  source  is 
liable  to  be  present  if  the  coagulation  of  the  cream 
has  gone  so  far  that  any  whey  has  separated.  The 
cream  should  in  all  cases  be  churned  before  the  ripen- 
ing process  has  reached  this  point.  It  was  formerly 
supposed,  and  is  still  generally  believed,  that  the  pro- 
duction of  an  excess  of  lactic  acid  in  ripening  tends 
to  a  loss  of  butter,  from  the  fact  that  the  acid 
dissolved  or  "cut"  the  fat,  causing  it  to  disappear. 
This  has  been  shown,  both  theoretically  and  practi- 
cally, not  to  be  the  case.  Lactic  acid  has  no  appre- 
ciable effect  upon  fat,  so  far  as  dissolving  or  decom- 
posing it  is  concerned,  and  cream  may  be  held  until 
the  whey  has  separated  to  the  full  extent  without 
any  loss  in  the  amount  of  butter  that  it  is  possible 
to  churn  from  it.  The  chief  evil  effect  in  over- 
ripening  is  in  the  production  of  strong  and  undesir- 
able flavors  accompanying  the  undue  production  of 
lactic  acid. 

Where  the  cream  is  made  from  milk  that  has  been 
produced  under  uncleanly  conditions,  or  has  been  care- 
lessly handled,  or  where  the  cream  itself  has  been 


The    Effects   of   Over -Ripening  209 

transported  for  long  distances  and  subjected  to 
many  vicissitudes,  bad  flavors  are  much  more  likely 
to  show  themselves  again,  if  the  ripening  process  is 
carried  too  far,  even  though  they  may  have  been  par- 
tially removed  by  pasteurization.  Such  cream  should 
be  watched  carefully  and  churned  with  a  moderate 
development  of  acid. 


CHAPTER   XI 
CHURNING 

THE  process  of  causing  the  particles  of  butter  fat 
to  unite  into  masses,  so  that  they  may  readily  be 
separated  from  the  milk  serum,  is  called  churning. 
Such  union  of  the  particles  of  fat  is  ordinarily 
brought  about  by  agitation  of  the  cream  in  a  suit- 
able vessel,  called  a  churn.  If  milk  or  cream  be 
agitated  at  a  temperature  somewhat  below  the  melt- 
ing point  of  butter  fat,  the  particles  of  fat,  as  they 
pass  by  one  another,  agglutinate  themselves  into 
masses,  and,  the  process  being  continued,  the  first 
formed  masses  continue  uniting,  until  finally  the 
whole  body  of  fat  may  be  brought  together  in  a  prac- 
tically solid  mass.  The  conditions  influencing  the 
separation  of  fat  in  this  way  are,  first,  the  viscosity 
of  the  milk ;  second,  the  ripeness  of  the  cream  ; 
third,  the  temperature;  fourth,  the  nature  of  the 
agitation;  fifth,  the  quality  of  the  globules  of  fat. 

The  viscosity  of  the  milk. —  The  viscosity  of  the 
milk  affects  the  churning,  in  that  it  tends  to  keep 
the  particles  of  fat  from  moving  freely  upon  one 
another,  and  in  that  the  viscous  portions  of  the 
milk,  notably  some  of  the  albuminous  matter,  form  a 
more  or  less  dense  layer  about  the  fat  globules. 

(210) 


Temperature   of   Churning  211 

tending  to  keep  them  apart.  The  more  viscous  the 
milk,  then,  the  greater  the  difficulty  with  which  it 
will  churn. 

The  ripeness  of  the  cream. — The  ripeness  of  the 
cream  affects  the  churning,  largely  because  of  its 
effect  upon  the  viscosity  of  the  milk.  The  produc- 
tion of  lactic  acid  in  milk  always  has  the  tendency 
to  render  it  less  viscous,  and  sour  milk  or  cream, 
therefore,  will  churn  more  readily  than  sweet  for 
this  reason.  The  viscosity  of  the  milk  must  be 
distinguished  from  the  thickness  of  the  milk,  due 
to  the  coagulation  of  the  casein.  Souring  of  the 
milk  renders  it  less  viscous,  but  at  the  same  time 
by  coagulating  the  casein  renders  it  thicker  and 
less  fluid. 

The  temperature. — The  temperature  is  the  most  im- 
portant condition  affecting  churning.  Whether  the 
particles  of  fat  shall  unite  as  they  pass  by  one 
another  when  the  liquid  is  in  motion,  depends  very 
largely  upon  their  temperature  and  degree  of  plas- 
ticity. If  the  temperature  is  too  low,  the  globules 
of  fat  are  so  hard  that  when  they  hit  one  another 
they  do  not  stick  together.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  temperature  is  too  high,  the  effect  of  agita- 
ting the  globules  of  fat  is,  instead  of  causing  them 
to  unite,  to  break  them  up  into  still  smaller  glob- 
ules, and  so  render  the  emulsion  more  permanent. 
The  range  of  temperature  through  which  the  parti- 
cles of  fat  may  be  made  to  unite  is  considerable. 
The  extreme  limits  may  be  placed  at  from  46°  to 
80°  F.  But  while  butter  may  be  churned  from 


212  Milk  and  Its  Products 

milk  or  cream  through  this  wide  range  of  tempera- 
ture, the  quality  of  the  butter  is  very  seriously  af- 
fected. The  butter  is  in  the  best  condition  when  it 
is  churned  at  such  a  temperature  that  the  particles 
of  fat  unite  readily,  and  when  united  form  firm 
masses  or  granules  of  butter.  The  temperature  at 
which  this  desirable  end  is  brought  about  varies 
under  a  wide  range  of  conditions,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are  the  following:  The  individuality  of 
the  animal  ;  the  period  of  lactation  ;  the  nature  of 
the  food  of  the  cows  ;  the  season  of  the  year. 
These  conditions  are  all  conditions  which  affect  the 
melting  point  of  the  butter  fat.  The  higher  the 
melting  point  of  the  fat,  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  milk  should  be  churned,  and  the 
lower  the  melting  point  of  the  fat,  the  lower  the 
churning  temperature.  Any  condition  which  tends 
to  make  the  butter  fat  hard  will  necessarily  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  rise  in  the  churning  temperature,  and 
any  condition  which  tends  to  make  the  butter  fat 
soft  will  for  the  same  reason  be  followed  by  a 
fall  in  the  churning  temperature.  It  is  impossible, 
then,  to  name  any  single  temperature  which  is  the 
best  or  even  the  proper  one  at  which  to  churn ; 
but  while  there  is  a  considerable  range  of  tempera- 
ture, which  under  different  conditions  may  give  the 
best  results,  still  this  range  is  not  so  wide  as  the 
range  of  temperature  at  which  it  is  possible  to 
churn,  and  the  limits  may  perhaps  be  placed  at  from 
50°  to  66°  F.  In  general,  the  lowest  temperature 
compatible  with  securing  butter  in  a  reasonable 


The   Nature   of  the   Agitation  213 

length  of  time  will  give  butter  of  the  best  quality. 
The  lower  the  temperature  at  which  the  butter  is 
churned,  other  things  being  equal,  the  more  com- 
pletely will  the  butter  be  removed  from  the  butter- 
milk, the  longer  will  be  the  time  required  for  churn- 
ing, and  the  less  casein  will  be  found  in  the.  butter. 
The  nature  of  the  agitation.  —  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  best  results  follow  from  agitating 
the  cream  in  such  a  way  that  the  particles  of  fat 
are  subject  to  more  or  less  concussion,  though  it 
is  not  at  all  necessary  that  this  concussion  should 
take  place.  Mere  gentle  stirring  of  the  cream,  if 
continued  long  enough,  will  bring  butter,  and  agi- 
tating the  cream  by  passing  bubbles  of  air  through 
it  will  also  cause  it  to  churn.  Many  churns  have 
been  devised  which  bring  about  the  churning  by 
agitating  the  cream  with  floats  or  paddles,  and  in 
the  old-fashioned  dasjh  churn  there  was  a  minimum 
amount  of  concussion,  the  motion  being  largely  that 
of  stirring.  Where  the  agitation  is  brought  about 
by  the  use  of  paddles  or  stirring  instruments,  the 
texture  of  the  butter  is  usually  injured,  because  of 
the  effect  of  the  stirring  motion  upon  the  grain  of 
the  first  particles  of  .butter  formed.  The  best  churns, 
then,  are  entirely  hollow  vessels,  barrel  or  box, 
which  bring  about  agitation  of  the  cream  through 
concussion  of  the  particles  upon  the  sides  of  the 
rotating  churn.  The  churning  depends,  also,  upon 
the  rate  of  agitation;  the  faster  the  motion  to 
which  the  particles  of  cream  are  subjected,  the 
quicker  will  be  the  churning.  In  this  respect  the 


214 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


motion  of  the  particles  and  the  motion  of  the  churn 
must  not  be  confounded.  If  the  motion  of  the  churn 
is  increased  so  that  sufficient  centrifugal  force  is  gen- 
erated to  cause  the  particles  of  cream  to  partake  of 


Fig.  33     Barrel  power  churn. 

the  motion  of  the  churn,  then,  though  the  particles 
may  pass  through  space  at  a  greater  rate  of  speed, 
the  motion  of  the  particles  upon  each  other  will  be 
lessened.  A  maximum  motion  of  the  particles  upon 
each  other  is  obtained  when  the  speed  of  the  churn 
stops  just  short  of  setting  up  centrifugal  force  in 


ui  uopvuBA  sgsnBo  qoiqAY  gougnjjiii  A\uo  eq;  }ou  si 
i  9,iri4B.i9dra9:).  jo  :p9jj9  9q;  aoptin  ^o 
uoaq  Xp^gap  s^q  siq^  'pguagouoo  si  S^BJ  aq; 

jo  ss9ii^jos  ao  ssoupJBq  9qi  SB  JBJ  og  'Sumanqo  jo 
ui 


u.int[o  aa.Ai.od  xoq  ea^nDg      'jg   ' 


.i9d 

u  04  puods9Jaoo 


jo 
pnnoj  9q 


fo 


pun 


216  Milk   and   Its   Products 

the  hardness  or  softness  of  the  fat.  The  relative 
proportions  of  hard  and  soft  fats  vary  consider- 
ably. When  the  soft  fats 
predominate,  the  churning  is 
easier  than  when  they  are  in 
less  proportion,  while  an  un- 
due proportion  of  hard  fats 
often  renders  churning  ex- 
tremely difficult.  The  size  of 
the  fat  globules  also  bears  an 
important  part  in  the  ease 
and  time  required  for  churn- 
ing.  In  passing  through  a 

mass  of  liquid  two  large  globules  are  more  likely 
to  hit  each  other  than  are  two  small  ones,  the  rela- 
tive probability  of  their  meeting  and  hitting  being 
in  proportion  to  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

The  end  of  churning. — When  the  particles  of  fat 
have  united  to  such  an  extent  that  they  begin  to  be 
visible  in  the  cream,  the  butter  is  said  to  "break," 
and  from  this  time  on  the  process  of  churning  is  rap- 
idly finished.  Two  things  are  to  be  observed  in  bring- 
ing the  operation  of  churning  to  a  close.  In  the 
first  place,  the  churning  should  be  continued  until 
the  separation  of  fat  is  as  complete  as  possible. 
In  the  second  place,  the  larger  the  masses  of  but- 
ter in  the  churning  the  more  difficult  is  the  re- 
moval of  the  buttermilk.  If  the  cream  is  thor- 
oughly and  uniformly  ripened,  the  separation  will  be 
more  uniform  and  the  churning  more  complete 
than  when  creams  of  different  degrees  of  ripeness 


Conditions  of  Difficult  Churning  217 

are  churned  together ;  but  under  various  conditions, 
and  from  time  to  time,  the  completeness  of  separation 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  granules  of  butter;  that 
is  to  say,  if  the  granules  have  reached  a  certain  size, 
it  does  not  always  follow  that  the  fat  has  been  re- 
moved from  the  buttermilk  to  the  same  degree,  so 
that  the  size  of  the  granules  of  butter  is  not  a  certain 
indication  of  the  completeness  of  churning.  When  the 
churning  process  is  complete,  the  buttermilk  takes  on 
a  thin,  bluish,  watery  appearance,  quite  distinct  from 
the  thicker  creamy  appearance  of  the  unchurned  cream, 
and  the  churning  should  be  continued  until  this  con- 
dition of  the  buttermilk  is  reached,  even  though  the 
granules  are  increased  in  size  beyond  the  point  favor- 
able to  their  best  separation  from  the  buttermilk. 
The  higher  the  temperature  at  which  the  cream  is 
churned,  the  greater  the  percentage  of  fat  left  in 
the  buttermilk  and  the  more  casein  will  be  incorpo- 
rated with  the  butter. 

Difficult  churning. — Conditions  often  arise  under 
which  it  is  very  difficult  or  impossible  to  cause  the 
butter  to  unite  in  granules  and  separate  from  the  but- 
termilk. One  of  the  chief  difficulties  accompanies 
a  small  and  hard  condition  of  the  butter  granules 
with  a  high  viscosity  in  the  cream.  These  con- 
ditions usually  occur  in  the  late  fall  and  early  win- 
ter months,  when  the  cows  are  far  advanced  in  lac- 
tation, and  when  they  are  often  fed  on  dry  food 
of  a  character  to  make  hard  butter  fat.  An  im- 
proper ripening  of  the  cream  often  accompanies 
these  conditions,  so  that  complaints  of  difficulty  in 


218  MM   and  Its   Products 

churning  are  usually  numerous  at  this  period  of 
the  year.  These  complaints  readily  yield  to  the 
proper  treatment,  which  is  indicated  under  the  con- 
ditions affecting  churning,  and  so  far  as  is  known 
there  never  occurs  a  condition  under  which  it  is 
absolutely  impossible  to  churn  the  butter  from  any 
given  sample  of  cream.  The  course  to  be  followed  in 
cases  of  this  nature  is,  first,  to  add  to  the  food  of 
the  cows  something  of  a  succulent  nature,  that  will 
cause  the  secretion  of  milk  to  be  greater  in  amount 
and  not  so  viscous.  Second,  to  further  lessen  the 
viscosity  by  bringing  about  a  vigorous  lactic  acid 
fermentation  in  the  milk,  and  in  extreme  instances, 
perhaps,  diluting  the  cream  with  warm  water  or 
weak  brine.  Care  must  be  taken  that  this  dilution 
does  not  go  too  far,  or  difficulty  in  churning  from 
the  thinness  of  the  cream  will  result.  The  produc- 
tion of  lactic  acid  in  good  amounts  and  within  a 
reasonable  time  seems  to  be  an  important  means  of 
overcoming  these  cases  of  difficult  churning.  It  is 
not  unlikely  that  some  of  the  lower  fermentations, 
which  take  place  at  temperatures  below  which  the 
lactic  acid  germs  are  active,  may  in  themselves  have 
a  retarding  effect  upon  the  churning.  These  cases 
of  difficult  churning  are  frequently  accompanied  by 
the  production  of  an  acrid  or  bitter  putrefactive 
fermentation  product  in  the  cream. 

If  the  attempt  is  made  to  churn  at  an  extremely 
low  temperature,,  the  agitation  of  the  cream  serves 
to  incorporate  with  it  bubbles  of  air,  and  the 
cream  froths  or  swells.  When  this  takes  place, 


Helping   Butter   to    "Break"  219 

little  can  be  done  except  to  allow  the  cream  to 
stand  for  several  hours  and  then  warm  it  up 
gradually  four  or  five  degrees  before  again  starting 
the  churn.  There  is  very  much  less  danger  of  swel- 
ling in  the  revolving  churns  than  in  dash  churns. 

Frequently  also,  in  cases  when  the  attempt  is 
made  to  churn  at  the  extreme  lowest  point  possible, 
the  formation  of  butter  stops  just  short  of  the 
breaking  point,  and  further  agitation  does  not  resuit 
in  an  increase  of  butter.  This  may  be  overcome  by 
slightly  raising  the  temperature,  or  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  water  at  a  temperature  of  85°  or  90°  F.; 
or,  what  is  better,  it  can  usually  be  brought  about 
by  the  addition  of  a  little  dry  salt  to  the  churn. 
The  solution  of  salt  in  the  water  of  the  cream 
seems  to  affect  the  viscosity  in  such  a  way  that 
the  formation  of  butter  granules  is  greatly  facilitated. 

When  ripened  cream  is  churned,  there  is  usually 
an  evolution  of  gas  immediately  after  the  agitation 
commences.  This  is  gas  which  has  been  formed  by 
some  of  the  fermentations  going  on  in  the  cream,  and 
the  gas  is  liberated  within  the  first  five  or  ten  min- 
utes. The  temperature  also  rises  two  or  three  degrees 
during  the  operation,  from  the  effect  of  the  friction 
of  the  particles  upon  one  another. 


CHAPTER   XII 

FINISHING    AND    MARKETING    BUTTER 

WHEN  the  churning  process  is  complete,  it  still 
remains  to  separate  the  buttermilk  from  the  granules 
of  butter,  and  to  bring  the  whole  into  a  solid,  uni- 
form mass,  suitable  for  consumption  and  properly 
flavored  with  salt.  These  operations  may  be  per- 
formed in  a  variety  of  ways.  Formerly  it  was  the 
custom  to  continue  the  churning  until  the  butter 
was  in  a  measurably  solid  mass,  when  it  was  re- 
moved from  the  churn  and  the  buttermilk  expelled 
by  pressure,  at  the  same  time  that  the  salt  was 
incorporated  with  the  butter.  Now  the  buttermilk 
is  uniformly  removed  from  the  butter  by  washing 
with  water  in  the  churn,  and  in  many  instances 
the  salt  is  incorporated  with  it  during  the  whole 
or  part  of  this  operation  ;  but  the  more  common 
practice  is  to  wash  the  butter  in  the  churn  and  to 
work  out  the  surplus  moisture  and  incorporate  the 
salt  upon  a  separate  instrument,  called  a  butter 
worker. 

Washing  the  butter. — The  churning  should  be 
stopped  as  soon  as  the  buttermilk  is  clear  and  wa- 
tery. If  the  churning  has  been  done  at  the  right 
temperature  and  the  cream  properly  ripened,  this  con- 

(220) 


Washing   Butter  221 

dition  will  occur  when  the  butter  granules  are  not 
larger  than  kernels  of  wheat.  As  soon  as  the  churn 
is  stopped,  the  addition  of  a  little  cold  water  to  the 
contents  of  the  churn  will  facilitate  the  rising  of 
the  smaller  globules  of  butter  through  the  butter- 
milk. The  buttermilk  should  then  be  drawn  off 
from  the  bottom  of  the  churn,  and  the  butter  al- 
lowed to  drain  thoroughly.  After  the  butter  is  thor- 
oughly drained,  water  at  a  temperature  of  45°  to 
55°  F.  should  be  added  in  amounts  equal  to  two- 
thirds  the  amount  of  buttermilk  withdrawn.  The 
contents  of  the  churn  should  then  be  gently  agitated, 
so  that  the  water  may  come  in  contact  with  each  par- 
ticle of  butter,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
particles  will  compact  themselves  into  larger  masses. 
In  about  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  this  water  should  be 
withdrawn  and  the  butter  allowed  to  drain  as  before, 
after  which  the  butter  should  be  washed  the  second 
time  in  the  same  manner.  This  second  water  should 
run  away  clear,  or  with  a  very  slight  milkiness. 
If  it  is  at  all  milky,  the  butter  should  be  washed 
again,  and  the  washing  continued  until  the  water  does 
run  away  clear.  It  is  desirable  that  as  little  wash- 
ing be  done  as  possible,  and  if  care  is  taken  in 
stopping  the  churning  at  the  right  moment,  and  in 
draining  and  washing  the  butter,  two  waters  will  be 
sufficient .  The  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  salt 
to  the  first  washing  water  will  facilitate  the  removal 
of  the  buttermilk,  but  will  not  add  any  perceptible 
saltiness  to  the  butter.  The  way  in  which  the  wash- 
ing is  done  perceptibly  affects  the  quality  of  the 


222  Milk   and  Its   Products 

finished  butter,  particularly  so  far  as  regards  its  tex- 
ture and  percentage  of  water.  The  smaller  the 
granules  of  butter  when  the  churn  is  stopped,  and 
the  colder  the  water  used,  the  more  water  will  re- 
main in  the  butter  without  appearing  in  the  form 
of  drops.  If  the  churning  has  progressed  until  the 
butter  has  formed  masses  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut 
or  larger,  particularly  if  the  butter  is  soft,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  completely  wash  the  buttermilk  from 
the  butter,  and  the  buttermilk  must  necessarily  be 
removed  in  working.  Such  butter  will  always  re- 
tain in  its  flavor  traces  of  the  buttermilk  so  incor- 
porated with  it. 

The  texture  of  the  butter  is  also  affected  by  the 
temperature  of  the  wash  water.  If  the  butter  comes 
soft,  the  attempt  is  usually  made  to  cool  it  down 
rapidly  by  the  addition  of  large  amounts  of  very  cold 
water.  The  butter  can  be  hardened  up  in  this  way, 
but  it  will  show  the  effect  of  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  afterward  much  more  strongly  than  if  it 
were  cooled  down  more  slowly.  Butter  fat  does 
not  conduct  heat  rapidly,  and  to  become  thoroughly 
warm  or  thoroughly  cool  requires  some  little  time. 
If,  then,  butter  has  been  churned  too  warm,  and 
comes  in  a  soft  condition,  the  washing  process  should 
be  much  prolonged.  Use  the  ordinary  amount  of 
water  and  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  but  allow  the 
butter  to  remain  in  it  until  it  has  had  sufficient  time 
to  thoroughly  adjust  itself  to  the  changed  condition. 
It  can  then  be  taken  out  and  worked  without  dan- 
ger of  quickly  becoming  soft  again.  There  is  also 


Working   Butter  223 

danger  of  removing  some  of  the  more  delicate  flavor- 
ing oils  of  the  butter  by  the  use  of  too  large  an 
amount  of  very  cold  water.  These  flavoring  oils  are 


Fig.    36.     "  Eureka  "  hand  butter- worker. 

slightly  soluble,  and*  more  soluble  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture, so  that  the  drenching  with  large  amounts  of 
very  cold  water  has  a  tendency  toward  the  produc- 
tion of  a  flavorless  or  tallowy  butter. 

Working. — Working  butter  is  an  integral  part  of 
the  process  of  manufacture,  only  in  so  far  as  it  re- 
lates to  the  incorporation  of  the  salt  and  bringing 
the  butter  into  the  compact  form  necessary  for  con- 
sumption, so  that  all  working  beyond  that  which 
is  necessary  to  bring  about  these  two  things  is  super- 


224 


Milk    and    Its    Products 


fluous,  and,  because  of  the  danger  of  injuring  the 
grain  of  the  butter,  is  objectionable.  The  grain 
of  the  butter  is  least  affected  by  working  when  this 
is  done  by  pressure  and  at  a  temperature  of  from 
45°  to  55°  F.  The  amount  of  water  that  remains 


Fig.  37.     "Mason"  table  butter-worker. 

in  the  butter  depends,  as  before  stated,  upon  the 
temperature  and  fineness  of  the  granules.  The  finer 
and  colder  the  butter,  the  more  water  will  it  retain. 
Salting.  —  Salt  is  added  to  butter  solely  for  the 
sake  of  the  flavor  which  it  imparts.  While  salt  has 
undoubted  antiseptic  properties,  these  play  very  little 
part  in  the  preservation  of  butter,  and  need  not  be 
taken  into  consideration.  The  amount  of  salt,  then, 
that  should  be  added  to  butter  depends  entirely 


Salting   Butter  225 

upon  the  taste  of  the  consumer  for  whom  it  is  in- 
tended, and  may  vary  from  a  mere  trifle  to  as 
much  as  2%  ounces  for  each  pound  of  butter. 
The  great  majority  of  consumers,  however,  prefer 
an  amount  ranging  between  %  of  an  ounce  and  1 
ounce  to  the  ponnd.  The  addition  of  a  uniform 


Fig.  38.    "  Centrifugal  "  or  vertical  butter- worker. 

amount  of  salt  from  day  to  day  is  a  matter  of 
considerable  importance  in  securing  a  uniform  qual- 
ity of  butter,  and  the  amount  of  salt  should,  there- 
fore, be  based  upon  the  least  variable  factor  possi- 
ble. It  will  be  found  that  from  day  to  day  the 
size  of  the  granules  of  butter  when  washed,  and  the 
o 


226  Milk   and   Its   Products 

amount  of  water  adhering  to  them,  will  vary  consid- 
erably, so  that  the  weight  of  washed  and  drained  but- 
ter will  not  bear  any  definite  relation  to  the  amount 
of  finished  butter,  and  if  the  attempt  is  made  to  gauge 
the  salt  by  the  weight  of  drained  butter,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  degree  of  saltness  will  vary  considera- 
bly, because  when  more  water  is  contained  in  the 
butter  much  more  of  the  salt  will  pass  out  with 
the  brine.  When  a  separator  is  used  in  creaming, 
the  weight  of  cream  will  be  found  to  bear  a  closer 
proportion  to  the  weight  of  finished  butter  than 
either  the  original  weight  of  the  whole  milk  or  the 
weight  of  the  washed  and  drained  butter,  and  the 
more  uniform  salting  will  be  obtained  if  the  salt 
is  added  in  the  ratio  of  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  weight  of  the  cream.  The  salt  should  be  added 
so  that  it  can  be  readily  and  uniformly  incorporated 
with  the  whole  amount  of  butter.  This  is  con- 
veniently done  while  the  water  is  being  expressed 
from  the  butter  in  the  worker,  and  the  working 
should  continue  until  the  salt  has  completely  dis- 
solved, because  the  salt  has  a  deepening  effect  upon 
the  color  of  the  butter,  and  if  some  undissolved 
portions  remain,  these,  afterwards  dissolving  in  the 
water  contained  in  the  butter,  will  make  a  strong 
brine  at  that  particular  point,  and  consequently  a 
deeper  color,  and  mottled  or  streaked  butter  is  the 
result. 

The  salt  should  be  dry,  of  uniform  grain,  and 
should  readily  and  completely  dissolve  to  a  clear 
solution.  Those  brands  of  salt  which  are  made  from 


Packing   Butter  227 

the  natural  crystal  give  the  best  results  so  far  as  re- 
maining dry  and  freedom  from  caking  are  concerned. 

Brine  salting. — With  many  who  prefer  a  butter 
slightly  salted,  it  is  sometimes  convenient  to  add 
the  salt  through  the  medium  of  brine,  rather  than 
to  mix  it  with  the  butter  in  a  dry  condition.  The 
advantages  of  brine  salting  are  that  a  light  amount 
of  salt  may  be  uniformly  incorporated  with  the 
butter.  It  is  not  possible  to  incorporate  with  the 
butter  a  large  amount  of  salt  in  this  way.  Where 
well -drained  butter  is  salted  at  the  rate  of  one 
ounce  to  the  pound,  there  will  remain  in  the  but- 
ter about  3  per  cent  of  salt.  Where  butter  is 
washed  twice  with  a  saturated  brine,  there  will  re- 
main in  the  butter  when  worked  about  2  per  cent 
of  salt.  In  salting  butter  in  this  manner,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  the  brine  should  be  prepared  before- 
hand. This  is  best  done  by  dissolving  the  salt  in 
warm  water,  as  much  as  the  water  will  hold,  and 
then  cooling  it  to  the  proper  temperature  to  add  to 
the  butter.  The  brine  in  this  instance  may  take  the 
place  of  the  second  wash  water.  After  the  brine 
has  remained  upon  the  butter  five  or  ten  minutes, 
it  should  be  withdrawn  and  additional  salt  added  to 
it,  or  a  second  portion  of  saturated  brine  added  and 
left  upon  the  butter  for  a  similar  length  of  time, 
after  which  the  brine  may  be  withdrawn  and  the 
butter  worked  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Packing  and  marketing. — After  the  butter  has 
been  worked  until  the  salt  is  completely  dissolved 
and  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  removed,  it  is 


228  Milk   and  Its   Products 

ready  for  packing.  Butter  that  is  to  be  packed 
and  held  for  any  considerable  length  of  time  should 
be  worked  drier  than  when  it  is  intended  for  im- 
mediate consumption.  Fresh  butter  is  most  highly 
esteemed  in  most  markets  when  it  contains  about  all 
the  water  that  it  will  hold,  but  if  such  butter  is 
held  for  any  length  of  time  the  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  surface  will  lead  to  a  deposition  of  salt, 
which  detracts  much  from  its  appearance  and  sala- 
bleness.  An  ideal  package  for  butter  is  one  that  is 
light,  strong  and  tight.  None  of  the  packages 
in  ordinary  use  are  perfect  in  all  of  these  respects. 
Wooden  packages,  though  light  and  strong,  always 
leak  more  or  less  and  let  in  air.  Tin  packages 
are  more  or  less  objectionable  because  of  the  action 
of  the  salt  upon  the  tin,  and  iron,  and  glass,  and 
crockery  packages,  although  tight  and  clean,  are 
heavy  and  subject  to  breakage.  Packages  made  of 
paper  or  wood  pulp  have  been  used  to  some  extent,  as 
have  also  packages  of  these  materials  covered  with 
paraffine,  but  they  do  not  make  a  very  attractive 
package.  All  things  considered,  tight,  smooth,  well 
made  tubs  of  ash,  spruce  or  oak  make  the  most 
available  package.  All  wooden  packages  possess  the 
characteristic  flavor  of  the  wood,  which  may  be  im- 
parted to  the  butter  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  if 
it  is  allowed  to  remain  in  them  very  long.  In 
order  to  obviate  this,  the  odor  of  the  wood  should  be 
removed  as  much  as  possible  before  the  ,  butter  is 
packed.  The  package  should  be  thoroughly  steamed, 
and  then  filled  with  hot  water  in  which  some  salt 


Composition   of  Butter  229 

has  been  dissolved,  and  allowed  to  stand  at  least 
twenty -four  hours,  after  which  it  should  be  scalded 
a  second  time  and  then  cooled  with  cold  water. 
Butter  may  also  be  packed  in  prints  or  moulds, 
especially  for  immediate  consumption.  The  demand 
for  butter  in  this  form  is  increasing,  and  for  nearby 
markets  it  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  forms  of 
packing.  In  cool  weather  and  with  proper  precau- 
tions, prints  may  also  be  shipped  considerable  dis- 
tances with  success.  Prints  are  usually -"  made  in 
pound  and  half-pound  sizes,  intended  to  go  directly 
upon  the  table  in  the  shape  in  which  they  leave 
the  manufacturer.  Various  shapes  and  sizes  of  prints 
have  been  made,  but  since  the  great  increase  in  the 
demand  for  butter  in  this  shape,  a  standard  size  for 
pound  prints  has  been  settled  upon  that  makes  a 
rectangular  print,  4%  x  2%  x  2%  inches.  These 
prints  are  wrapped  in  parchment  paper  and  packed 
in  specially  made  carrying  boxes. 

Composition  and  quality  of  butter. — The  average 
composition  of  butter  is  about  as  follows: 

Fat 85  per  cent. 

Casein 1  per  cent. 

Salt 3  per  cent. 

Water 11  per  cent. 

The  percentage  of  fat  should  not  fall  below  80  per 
cent  nor  the  water  rise  above  15  per  cent.  The  per- 
centage of  casein  should  not  exceed  4  per  cent.  The 
percentage  of  fat  in  butter  of  good  quality  often  rises 
to  86  or  88  per  cent.  The  quality  of  butter  is 
judged  upon  its  flavor,  texture,  color,  amount  of  salt, 


230  Milk   and   Its    Products 

and  its  general  style  and  appearance.  Butter  of  good 
flavor  should  have  the  characteristic  flavors  well  pro- 
nounced. It  should  be  free  from  any  rancidity,  and 
clean  and  pure  so  far  as  any  extraneous  flavor  is  con- 
cerned. The  determination  of  the  flavor  of  any  sam- 
ple of  butter  is  entirely  one  of  individual  judgment. 
To  some  a  high  flavor  is  one  in  which  the  flavoring 
oils  are  developed  almost  to  the  verge  of  rancidity; 
in  others,  high  flavor  means  a  certain  amount  of  the 
flavor  of  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  ;  with  still  others, 
that  butter  is  esteemed  of  the  best  flavor  that  is 
cleanest  and  purest.  The  true  bouquet  of  high -class 
butter  is  a  mild,  distinct,  volatile  flavor  or  combina- 
tion of  flavors  extremely  difficult  to  describe,  and  only 
met  with  in  perfection  under  the  best  conditions. 

The  texture  of  butter  depends  upon  the  state  of 
the  granular  condition  of  the  fats.  When  the  butter 
is  first  formed  in  the  churn  it  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  shape  of  minute  irregular  granules.  In  the  sub- 
sequent process  of  manufacture  these  granules  never 
completely  lose  their  individuality,  and  constitute  the 
so-called  grain  of  the  butter.  The  more  distinctly 
the  individuality  of  the  granules  is  marked  in  the 
mass  of  butter,  the  better  the  texture.  The  texture 
of  the  butter  is  shown  by  an  appearance  like  broken 
cast  iron  when  a  mass  of  butter  is  broken  in  two 
transversely,  and  when  a  metal  is  passed  through  the 
butter,  as  a  knife  or  trier,  if  the  butter  be  of  the 
best  texture,  no  particles  of  fat  adhere  to  it.  The 
texture  of  the  butter  is  deteriorated  if  the  particles 
of  butter  are  churned  in  too  large  masses,  and  if 


Judging  Butter  231 

in  the  process  of  working  the  individual  particles 
are  made  to  move  upon  one  another  at  too  high  a 
temperature.  The  mere  warming  of  the  butter  to  a 
point  approaching  the  melting  point  destroys  the 
grain  upon  subsequent  cooling,  even  though  the  mass 
of  butter  may  have  been  undisturbed. 

The  color  of  the  butter  should  be  a  clear,  bright, 
golden  yellow,  such  as  is  naturally  yielded  by  the 
cow  when  feeding  upon  fresh  pasture  grasses.  The 
natural  color  of  the  butter  is  affected  very  hirgely  by 
the  race  of  the  cow,  by  the  character  of  the  food, 
and  by  the  period  of  lactation.  Scarcely  any  breed 
of  cows  will  yield  a  butter  of  ideal  color  upon  dry 
food  late  in  their  period  of  lactation.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  or  two  races  upon  fresh  pasture  will 
yield  a  butter  of  too  high  a  color  to  suit  the  most 
critical  trade.  The  great  mass  of  butter  made  is 
artificially  colored.  For  this  purpose  a  large  va- 
riety of  substances  has  been  used,  but  the  color- 
ing matter  most  commonly  employed  is  a  prep- 
aration of  annatto  (a  coloring  matter  in  the  seed 
pulp  of  Bixa  orellana)  in  some  neutral  oil.  This 
coloring  matter  is  prepared  of  such  strength  that  only 
minute  quantities  are  necessary  to  be  added  to  the 
cream  to  produce  butter  of  the  proper  shade.  Ani- 
line colors  are  also  quite  largely  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  butter  colors.  They  are  cheaper  and  do 
not  so  easily  fade  as  annatto,  and  some  of  them 
are  harmless  ;  but  because  of  the  liability  of  their 
containing  injurious  or  poisonous  substances  their 
use  is  not  to  be-  recommended.  Butter  artificially 


232  Milk   and  Its   Products 

colored  should  be  uniform,  of  a  bright  golden 
yellow  color,  free  from  any  reddish  tinge.  The 
demand  of  different  markets  varies  considerably  in 
regard  to  the  shade  of  color  desired. 

In  regard  to  salt,  the  quality  of  the  butter  is 
not  necessarily  affected  by  the  amount  of  salt,  that 
being  established  by  the  demand  of  the  trade  for 
which  it  is  intended,  but  the  salt,  in  whatever  de- 
gree added,  should  be  completely  dissolved,  and 
should  be  uniform  throughout  the  whole  mass  of 
butter.  The  finish  of  the  butter,  in  whatever  form 
packed,  should  be  such  that  it  will  present  a  neat, 
clean,  attractive  appearance.  The  different  qualities 
of  butter  are  ranked  in  importance  in  accordance 
with  the  following  scales: 

Flavor 40  to  45. 

Texture 25  to  30. 

Color - 10  to  15. 

Salt 10 

Finish 5 


CHAPTER   XIII 

MILK   FOB    CHEESE   MAKING 

CHEESE  is  a  product  manufactured  from  milk,  into 
which  a  large  part  of  the  solids  are  gathered  together 
in  such  form  that  their  nourishing  qualities  are  re- 
tained, at  the  same  time  that  they  are  brought  into 
a  condition  capable  of  preservation  and  convenient 
for  transportation.  The  solids  which  are  concerned 
in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  are  the  casein,  the  fats, 
arid  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ash.  The  albumin, 
nearly  all  of  the  sugar,  about  one -third  of  the  ash, 
and  a  small  part  of  the  fat,  escape  during  the  course 
of  manufacture.  The  elimination  of  a  large  part  of 
the  water  is  the  chief  step  in  the  process  of  cheese 
making.  In  general  terms,  cheese  consists  of  about 
equal  proportions  of  water,  fat  and  casein,  with  a 
certain  amount  of  salt  and  minute  quantities  of  milk 
sugar  and  ash.  In  milk,  the  casein  exists  in  a  state 
of  minute  suspension  or  semi-solution.  The  essential 
step  in  securing  the  separation  of  the  water  is  in 
rendering  the  casein  insoluble.  Casein,  like  most 
albuminous  organic  substances,  exists  in  two  forms, 
known  respectively  as  the  soluble  and  the  insoluble 
or  coagulated  form,  and  the  change  from  solution  to 
insolubility  is  termed  coagulation.  In  the  case  of 

(233) 


234  Milk  and  Its  Products 

casein,  coagulation  may  be  brought  about  by  several 
reagents,  but  the  one  universally  employed  in  cheese 
making  is  a  soluble  ferment  found  in  the  stomachs 
of  young  mammalia  and  in  certain  other  animals, 
known  as  rennet.  By  the  addition  of  rennet  to 
milk,  the  casein  takes  on  the  form  of  a  homogene- 
ous gelatinous  solid,  and  in  changing  its  form  en- 
closes in  its  mass  the  globules  of  fat.  In  bringing 
about  the  change  in  the  casein  in  this  way,  the  ren- 
net acts  by  contact ;  that  is,  its  own  constitution  is 
in  no  way  disturbed,  and  a  minute  amount  of  rennet 
is  capable  of  causing  the  coagulation  of  a  large 
amount  of  milk. 

Quality  of  milk  for  cheese  making. — While  it.  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  demonstrate  that  milk  is  val- 
uable for  butter  making  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  fat  it  contains,  the  proposition  that  its  percent- 
age of  fat  is  also  a  measure  of  the  value  of  nearly 
all  milk  for  cheese  making  has  not  been  so  readily 
accepted.  Indeed,  until  within  a  very  short  time,  the 
prevailing  opinion  among  dairymen  and  cheese -makers 
has  been  that  a  milk  poor  in  fat  was  likely  to  be 
rich  in  casein,  and  hence  more  valuable  for  cheese 
making  purposes.  But  both  fat  and  casein  are  con- 
stituents of  cheese,  and  both  are  of  nearly  equal  im- 
portance ;  hence,  the  richer  a  milk  is  in  fat,  the 
more  cheese  it  will  make,  and  recent  research  has 
shown  that  for  milks  containing  a  normal  amount  of 
fat  the  yield  of  cheese  will  be  nearly  proportional  to 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk. 


Relation    of  Fat    to    Castin 


Van  Slyke,*  in  a  series  of  investigations  extend- 
ing over  several  years,  and  including  the  milk  of  not 
less  than  fifteen  hundred  different  cows,  found  that  as 
the  percentage  of  fat  increased  the  percentage  of 
casein  increased  in  a  nearly  constant  ratio  ;  or,  to 
quote  his  own  words  :  "  While  we  have  noticed  'con- 
siderable variation  when  we  considered  individual 
herds,  we  have  found  that,  as  a  rule,  there  were  two- 
thirds  of  one  pound  of  casein  for  each  pound  of 
fat  in  the  milk,  whether  the  milk  contained  3  or  4 
per  cent  of  fat  ;  though  this  normal  relation  was  con- 
siderably affected  in  the  season  of  1893  by  the  effects 
of  drought  upon  the  pastures.  *  *  *  *  When 
the  amount  of  fat  in  the  milk  increased  beyond  4% 
per  cent,  there  was  a  gradual  but  slight  diminution 
of  casein  for  each  pound  of  fat." 

The  accompanying  tables  give  the  data  upon  which 
Dr.  Van  Slyke's  opinions  were  based  : 

Table  showing  relation  of  fat  to  casein  in  normal  milk 


Average 

Group. 

Percent  of 
fat  in  milk. 

Number  of 
samples. 

Average  per 
cent  of  fat  in 
each  group. 

Average  per 
cent  of  casein 
in  each  group 

pounds  of 
casein    for 
each  pound  of 

fat. 

I. 

3  to  3.5 

22 

3.35 

2.20 

0.66 

II. 

3.5  to  4 

112 

3.72 

2.46 

0.66 

III. 

4  to  4.5 

78 

4.15 

2.70 

0.65 

IV. 

4.5  to  5 

16 

4.74 

3.05 

0.64 

V. 

5  to  5.25 

7 

5.13 

3.12 

0.61 

*New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin,  No.  68,  New  Series. 


Milk  and   Its   Products 


Table  showing  relation  of  fat  in  milk  to  yield  of  cheese 


Group. 

Per  cent  of  fat  in 

•milt 

Pounds  of  green 
cheese  made  from  100 

Pounds  of  green 
cheese  made  for  one 

miiK. 

Ibs.  of  milk. 

pound  of  fat  in  milk. 

I. 

3  to  3.5 

9.14 

2.73 

II. 

3.5  to  4 

10.04 

2.70 

III. 

4  to  4.5 

11.34 

2.73 

IV. 

4.5  to  5 

12.85 

2.71 

V. 

5  to  5.25 

13.62 

2.66 

Babcock*  tabulated  the  results  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  observations  in  factories  in  Wisconsin  in  the 
accompanying  tables,  and  while  agreeing  in  the  main 
with  Van  Slyke,  was  forced  to  conclude  that,  "  at  the 
same  season  of  the  year,  rich  milks  do  not  yield  as 
much  cheese  in  proportion  to  the  fat  they  contain  as 
do  poor  milks,  but  that  a  rich  milk  toward  the  end  of 
the  season  may  do  as  well  as  a  much  poorer  milk 
earlier  in  the  season." 

Table  showing   yield  of  cheese  in  Wisconsin  factories   according    to 
per  cent  of  fat  in  milk 


No.  of 
groups. 

No.  of 
reports. 

Range  of  fat 
per  cent. 

Average  per 
cent  of  fat. 

Average 
yield  of 
cheese  per 
100  Ibs.  milk. 

Lbs.  of  cured 
cheese  for 
1  Ib.  fat. 

1 

24 

under  3.25 

3.126 

9.194 

2.941 

2 

90 

3.25—3.50 

3.382 

9.285 

2.730 

3 

134 

3.50-3.75 

3.600 

9.407 

2.613 

4 

43 

3.75—4.00 

3.839 

9.806 

2.562 

5 

46 

4.00—4.25 

4.090 

10.300 

2.512 

6 

20 

over  4.25 

4.447 

10.707 

2.407 

All  groups.  . 

347 

3.64 

9.566 

2.628 

^Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  llth  Annual  Report,  p.  137. 


Relation   of  Fat   to    Casein  237 

Table  showing  yield  of  cheese  in  Wisconsin  factories  by  months 


Month. 

No.  of 
reports. 

Average  per 
cent  of  fat. 

Average 
yield  of 
cheese   per 
100  Ibs.  milk. 

Lbs.  of  cured 
cheese  for 
1  Ib.  of  fat. 

April        ... 

*>2 

3  480 

9  154 

2  630 

May   

68 

3  493 

9  447 

2  704 

66 

3  497 

9  367 

2  679 

July 

63 

3  554 

9  231 

2  593 

August 

49 
36 

3.634 
3  836 

9.335 
9  955 

2.568 

fp 

2  594 

October  
November      

28 
15 

4.076 
4  254 

10.562 
10  947 

2.591 
2  573 

Whole  season  .... 

347 

3.64 

9.566 

2.628 

Table  showing  yield  of  cheese  for  one  pound  of  fat  for  each  month 


Percent  of  fat. 

April  and 
May. 

June 

July. 

August. 

Sept. 

October 
and 
Novemb'r 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

Under  3.25  .... 

12—2.96 

6—2.99 

3—2.89 

3—2.88 

3.25—3.50     .... 

33—2.73 

23—2.74 

20—2.70 

11—2.73 

3—2.85 

3.50-3.75     .... 

34-2.62 

32—2.63 

29—2.58 

24—2.54 

10—2.67 

5—2.81 

3.75—4.00     .... 

7—2.53 

3—2.47 

7—2.46 

7—2.53 

13—2.61 

6—2.62 

4.00—4.25     .... 

3—2.56 

2—2.30 

4—2.33 

3—2.35 

9—2.47 

15—2.64 

Over  4.25 

1  —  2.15 

1—1.95 

1—2.13 

17—2.46 

On   the   other   hand,   Dean*   has   found   that    uni- 

*  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  21st  Annual  Report,  p.  44. 


238 


Milk  and   Its   Products 


formly  a  rich  milk  yields  less  cheese  in  proportion 
to  the  fat  contained  in  it  than  a  poor  milk.  His 
experiments  covered  a  whole  season's  work  in  a 
single  factory,  the  average  results  of  which  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Yield  of  cheese  from  rich  and  poor  milk 


Num- 
ber of 

Per  cent  of  fat  in 
milk. 

Pounds  of  green  cheese 
for  one  pound  of  fat 
in  milk. 

experi- 

i 

ments. 

Richer 

Poorer 

Richer 

Poorer 

milk. 

milk. 

milk. 

milk. 

April       

6 
6 

4.21 

.   . 
3.39 

2.66 

2.86 

May  

15 

4.09 

2.68 

15 

3.30 

2  84 

June  

12 

3.94 

2.68 



12 

3.1(5                  .   . 

2.94 

JUly         

14 

3  78 

2  73 

14 

3.00                  .    . 

3.06 

August  

13 
13 

3.82 

2.91 

2.74 

3  14 

September  

12 

4.01 

2.68 

»* 

12 

3  06 

3  06 

October      .   .    

13 

3.99 

.   .                  2.82 

13 

3  26 

3  05 

3.98 

3.15 

2.71 

2.99 

The  practical  bearing  of  the  relation  of  the  fat 
to  the  casein  arises  in  the  question  as  to  whether, 
where  milk  is  bought  for  cheese  making,  it  should 
be  paid  for  by  weight  or  according  to  its  percent- 
age of  fat.  It  does  not  require  proof,  that  to  pay 
an  equal  price  per  pound  or  hundred  weight  for 
milk  of  all  qualities  is  a  gross  injustice  to  those 


Relation   of  Fat   to    Casein  239 

who  produce  the  richer  milks.  If  there  were  a 
quick,  accurate  method  of  determining  casein,  the 
logical  practice  would  be  to  pay  for  the  milk  upon 
the  basis  of  its  known  content  of  both  fat  and 
casein ;  but  failing  in  that,  it  is  well  to  examine 
in  how  far  we  may  fall  back  upon  the  percentage 
of  fat,  the  determination  of  which  is  both  quick 
and  accurate,  as  a  measure  for  determining  the 
value  of  milk  for  cheese  making.  While  there  is 
some  disagreement,  it  seems  to  be  pretty  well  settled 
that  a  milk  rich  in  fat  is  also  richer  in  casein, 
and  with  milk  of  ordinary  quality,  including  prob- 
ably nine -tenths  of  all  the  milk  produced,  nearly  in 
proportion  to  the  percentage  of  fat.  So  that,  even 
if  the  richer  milk  does  yield  a  little  less  cheese 
for  each  pound  of  fat,  the  percentage  of  fat  is  a 
much  more  nearly  just  measure  of  its  cheese -pro- 
ducing power  than  is  the  weight  of  the  milk,  the 
measure  now  commonly  employed.  Further,  when 
the  milk  is  so  rich  in  fat  that  the  casein  falls 
considerably  below  its  normal  ratio  to  the  fat,  the 
resulting  cheese  will  be  so  much  richer  in  fat 
that  it  will  be  of  considerably  better  quality,  and 
such  milk,  when  pooled  with  milk  poor  in  fat,  will 
so  bring  up  the  quality  of  the  whole  product,  that  it 
should  be  paid  for  at  a  correspondingly  higher  rate. 
The  conclusion,  therefore,  is  that  the  percentage  of 
fat  is  by  far  the  most  accurate  measure  at  present 
available  for  the  determination  of  the  cheese -produ- 
cing value  of  milk,  and  that  milk  is  practically  valu- 
able for  cheese  making  in  proportion  to  the  amount 


240 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


of  fat    that   it   contains,  and  should  be    paid   for  ac- 
cordingly. 

fjoss  of  fat  in  cheese  making. — It  has  been  a  gen- 
erally accepted  idea  by  cheese -makers,  that  the  neces- 
sary loss  of  fat  in  the  whey  is  much  greater 
when  the  milk  contains  a  high  percentage  of  fat. 
Indeed,  the  statement  has  been  frequently  made 
that  all  the  fat  in  the  milk  above  4  per  cent  is 
lost  in  the  whey.  This  idea  has  had  much  to  do 
with  the  disinclination  to  value  milk  for  cheese 
making  according  to  its  percentage  of  fat,  and,  in 
fact,  has  been  a  chief  argument  in  favor  of  the 
manufacture  of  skimmed  or  partly  skimmed  cheese. 

The   following    table   by   Van    Slyke*   shows   that 
this    idea    is   erroneous,    and   that   the   loss   of   fat  in 
the   whey   need    be    proportionately   no    greater    when 
the    milk   is   rich    than    when    it   is    poor    in   fat. 
Table  showing    amount  of  fat  lost   and  recovered  in  making  cheese 


Number  of 
experi- 
ment. 

Pounds 
of  fat 
in  100 
Ibs. 
of  milk. 

Pounds  of 
fat  lost  in 
100  Ibs. 
of  milk. 

Pounds  of  fat 
recovered  in 
100  Ibs.  of 
milk. 

Pounds  of  fat 
lost  in  whey 
from  100  Ibs. 
of  fat  in 
milk. 

Pounds  of  fat 
recovered  in 
green  cheese 
from  100  Ibs. 
of  fat  in  milk. 

1 

2  35 

0  154 

2  196 

6  55 

93  45 

2   

3.01 

0  193 

2817 

642 

93  58 

3    
4    .   .  •    .   . 
5  •    .... 
6 

3.88 
3.96 
4.70 
4  73 

0.277 
0.283 
0.359 
0  331 

3.603 
3.677 
4.341 
4  399 

7.15 
7.14 
7.64 
6  99 

92.85 
92.86 
92.36 
93  01 

7    

4.80 

0  373 

4427 

7  77 

9223 

8    . 

649 

0  715 

5  775 

11  01 

88  99 

9    

3.70 

0  269 

3.431 

7.26 

9274 

Other    investigators     have     abundantly     confirmed 
these   results. 


'New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  37,  p.  681. 


Cooling   and   Aeration  241 

Cooling. — All  that  was  said  in  Chapter  VII  on 
"market  milk,"  in  regard  to  cleanliness  in  drawing 
the  milk,  applies  equally  well  to  milk  that  is  in- 
tended for  cheese  making,  but  where  milk  is  made 
into  cheese  it  is  not  necessary,  nor,  indeed,  is 
it  desirable,  that  the  lactic  acid  fermentations  be 
checked  further  than  is  necessary  to  allow  the  milk 
to  come  into  the  cheese  maker's  hands  in  the  best 
condition.  In  cheese  making,  the  fermentations  of 
the  milk  play  a  most  important  part,  and  while  it 
is  not  at  present  known  just  what  fermentations  are 
necessary  or  most  desirable,  sufficient  is  known  to  as- 
sure us  that  a  certain  amount  of  lactic  acid  is  not 
only  desirable  but  necessary  for  the  cheese  making 
process,  and  enough  further  is  known  that  those  fer- 
mentations which  attack  the  protein  substances,  and 
result  in  the  formation  of  strong  flavors,  taints  and 
gases,  are  all  undesirable  in  cheese  making.  For 
the  purpose  of  cheese  making,  it  is  desirable  that  the 
fat  should  separate  from  the  other  constituents  of 
the  milk  as  little  as  possible,  and  to  that  end  the 
previous  treatment  of  the  milk  should  be  such  that 
the  separation  of  cream  will  be  held  back  as  much 
as  possible.  One  of  the  best  means  of  doing  this 
is  to  cool  the  milk  to  the  temperature  of  the  air 
while  it  is  kept  constantly  in  motion.  This,  be- 
side helping  to  keep  the  cream  mixed  with  the  milk, 
will  also  favor  the  escape  of  any  volatile  animal 
products  that  may  be  present  in  the  milk,  known 
under  the  collective  name  of  animal  odor,  and 
which  would  otherwise  impart  objectionable  flavors 
to  the  cheese. 


242 


Milk   and   Its  Products 


Aeration. — Passing  the  milk  through  an  elevated 
strainer  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  fall  in 
finely  divided  drops  or  streams  through  the  air  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  can,  is  one  of  the  best  means 
of  bringing  about  this  end.  This  is  known  as 
aeration.  It  cannot  be  depended 
upon  to  destroy  or  even  check  the 
germs  of  fermentations  which  may  be 
present/  in  the  milk,  beyond  that 
due  to  the  reduction  of  temperature. 
It  is  not  desirable  that  milk  in- 
tended for  cheese  making  should 
be  cooled  much  below  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  and  one  of  the  best 
preparations  of  milk  intended  for 
I  cheese  making  is  to  allow  it  to 
remain  where  it  will  be  freely  ex- 
posed to  a  pure  and  moderately  cool 
atmosphere.  Under  ordinary  condi- 
eievated  strainer.  tioiis,  the  milks  of  the  evening  and 
the  succeeding  morning  are  manufactured  together, 
and  the  treatment  indicated  is  naturally  that  of  the 
night's  milk.  It  is  highly  desirable,  however,  that 
the  milk  of  the-  morning  should  be  cooled  to  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  before  it  is  taken  to 
the  factory,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  the  milk 
of  the  night  and  morning  should  be  taken  to  the 
factory  in  separate  cans. 

Ripening.— The  lactic  acid  fermentation  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  all  the 
steps  of  cheese  making,  and  to  know  to  what  ex- 


Fig.  39. 


Rennet    Tests 


243 


tent  it  has  progressed  before  the  process  begins,  is 
exceedingly  important  to  the  cheese  maker.  To  this 
end,  several  convenient  tests  may  be  applied.  The 
veteran,  who  has  attained  skill  through  long  manip- 
ulation, can  tell  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy 
through  the  sense  of  smell  and  taste  the  amount 
of  lactic  acid  present  in  his  milk,  but  this  is  not 
a  safe  enough  guide  for  those  who  are  inexpe- 
rienced, or  those  who  expect  to  make  a  uniform 
product  in  a  uniform 
way  from  day  to  day. 
Rennet  tests. — The 
percentage  of  lactic 
acid  present  in  the 
milk  can  readily  be 
determined  directly  by 
titration  with  a  stand- 
ard alkali,  but  the 
amount  of  lactic  acid 
present  is  also  quite 
readily  dete  r  m  i  n  e  d 
by  the  length  of 
time  required  for  ren- 
net coagulation,  since 
ren net  acts  more 
quickly  upon  milk 
the  riper  it  is,  and 
upon  this  fact  two 
or  three  simple  tests  u  e  b 

have      been        devised.    Fig.  40.    Monrad  rennet  test,     a,  5  c.  c.  pipette; 
•T,,          .         ,  n    ,-,  b,  50  c.  c.   graduated   flask;    c,   cup  in  which 

The  Simplest    Of   these      test  is  made. 


244  Milk   and  Its    Products 

is  to  add  a  spoonful  of  rennet  of  known  strength 
to  a  teacupful  of  milk  and,  after  stirring  the  two 
together  thoroughly,  to  note  carefully  the  time  re- 
quired for  coagulation.  Another  and  more  exact 
method,  known  as  the  Monrad  test,  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: To  a  measured  quantity  of  milk  at  a  given 
temperature  a  measured  quantity  of  rennet  of  known 
strength  is  added;  ordinarily  the  commercial  rennet  is 
diluted  nine  times  for  this  purpose.  The  rennet  is 
thoroughly  stirred  with  the  milk,  and  the  time  re- 
quired for  coagulation  is  carefully  noted.  This  is 
simply  a  development  of  the  cup  test,  and  is  better 
because  of  its  greater  delicacy  and  accuracy;  the 
milk  and  rennet  being  more  carefully  measured,  and, 
diluted  rennet  being  used,  a  wider  range  of  delicacy 

is  reached.  Still 
another  form  of  ren- 
net test,  known  as 
the  Marschall  test, 
has  been  devised. 
In  this  test  the  milk 
is  measured  into  a 
vessel,  one  of  whose 
sides  is  graduated 
and  in  the  bottom 
of  which  there  is  a 
minute  orifice.  The 

Pig.  41.      Marschall  rennet  test.  rennet     JS     ad(led     to 

the    milk,    and    the 

vessel  so  placed  that  the  milk  can  escape  from  the 
hole  in  the  bottom.  So  long  as  the  milk  remains 


Ripening   the   Milk  245 

fluid  the  stream  is  continuous,  but  as  soon  as  the  ren- 
net takes  effect  and  a  clot  is  formed,  the  stream  stops, 
and  no  more  escapes.  The  number  of  spaces  of  milk 
which  escape  is  taken  as  the  measure  of  the  ripeness 
of  the  milk.  When  the  percentage  of  lactic  acid  is 
great  the  stream  stops  sooner  than  where  little  acid 
has  been  formed,  so  that  in  the  ripe  milk  a  less 
number  of  spaces  shows  upon  the  side  of  the  vessel 
than  in  the  unripe  milk. 

Degree  of  ripeness  necessary. — By  ripeness  of  milk 
for  cheese  making  is  meant,  as  in  the  case  of  but- 
ter making,  the  degree  of  lactic  acid  development  that 
has  taken  place.  For  cheese  making,  the  develop- 
ment of  lactic  acid  should  not  have  proceeded  so 
far  that  the  milk  is  distinctly  sour  to  the  taste,  and 
it  should  have  proceeded  far  enough  so  that  the 
whole  process  of  cheddar  cheese  making,  from  the 
time  of  adding  the  rennet  to  putting  the  cheese  in 
press,  will  take  not  more  than  six  hours.  This  will 
be  indicated  by  a  rennet  test  of  2%  spaces  on  the 
Marschall  apparatus,  or  a  rennet  test  of  one  minute 
on  the  Monrad  test,  when  5  c.  c.  of  diluted  com- 
mercial rennet  extract  (1  part  rennet  to  9  of  water) 
are  added  to  200  c.  c.  of  milk. 

Starters. — In  very  many  cases  the  milk,  when 
brought  to  the  factory,  will  not  be  sufficiently  ripe 
to  give  the  tests  indicated  above.  In  that  case  it 
should  be  allowed  to  ripen  before  the  cheese  making 
process  begins.  This  may  be  brought  about  by 
heating  the  milk  up  to  85°  F.,  when  the  germs 
already  present  become  more  active ;  but  the  time 


246  Milk   and   Its   Products 

required  for  the  ripening  will  be  shortened,  and  more 
uniform  results  be  obtained  if,  in  addition  to  the 
warming,  an  artificial  starter  is  used.  This  may  be 
any  material  containing  the  germs  of  lactic  fermen- 
tation in  active  condition.  The  whey  saved  from 
the  previous  day,  or  milk  naturally  or  artificially 
soured,  may  be  used.  An  extremely  convenient 
form  of  starter  is  made  by  preparing  an  artificial 
ferment  in  the  following  way:  Ten  pounds  of 
whole  milk  are  sterilized  at  180°  F.,  then  cooled  to 
90°,  and  sufficient  commercial  dry  lactic  ferment 
added  to  secure  coagulation  in  twenty -four  hours. 
When  coagulated,  this  is  added  to  the  extent  of  10 
per  cent  to  enough  whole  milk  to  make  sufficient 
starter  for  one  day's  use.  (See  Appendix  A.)  The 
amount  of  starter  to  be  added  for  the  purpose  of 
ripening  the  milk  should  be  from  2  to  5  per  cent, 
varying  with  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  the 
amount  of  ripeness  that  it  is  necessary  to  develop  after 
the  milk  reaches  the  factory.  Enough  of  the  ferment 
should  be  reserved  each  day  to  prepare  ferment  for 
the  following  day  from  whole  milk;  and  with  care  that 
the  vessels  in  which  the  ferment  is  made  are  kept 
clean  and  sweet,  a  single  ferment  may  be  propagated 
for  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
there  is  no  reason  why  a  ferment  may  not  be  propa- 
gated for  an  indefinite  time.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to 
keep  everything  bacteriologically  clean  and  to  prevent 
infection  by  never  allowing  any  dust  or  solid  particles 
to  fall  into  the  ferment  and  never  to  touch  it  with  the 
hands.  Such  a  ferment  will  give  more  uniform  results, 


Preparation   of  Rennet  247 

and  is  less  liable  to  introduce  taints  and  bad  flavors, 
than  a  ferment  made  from  sour  whey,  and  with  a  little 
care  and  attention,  the  fermentation  will  go  on  regu- 
larly from  day  to  day. 

Rennet— The  ordinary  source  of  rennet  is  the 
fourth  or  digestive  stomach  of  a  calf  that  has  not 
yet  ceased  to  live  upon  milk,  though  rennet  is  also 
found  in  the  stomachs  of  puppies  and  pigs,  and  the 
latter  have  occasionally  been  used  as  a  source  of 
rennet.  The  active  principle  of  the  rennet-  is  found 
in  the  folds  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach 
of  the  animal,  and  is  greatest  in  amount  when  a  full 
meal  is  just  digested. 

Rennet  causes  coagulation  of  the  casein  by  con- 
tact, and  is  not  itself  affected  by  the  change.  Its 
action,  however,  is  greatly  modified  by  various  con- 
ditions of  the  milk,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  temperature  and  the  condition  of  certain  of 
the  ash  constituents.  Rennet  is  most  active  at  tem- 
peratures near  the  body  heat,  98°  F.  At  temper- 
atures below  80°  F.,  the  action  of  rennet  is  corre- 
spondingly slow.  On  the  other  hand  as  the  temper- 
ature is  raised  above  100°  F.,  the  activity  of  the 
rennet-  is  at  first  increased,  but  after  about  130°  F. 
is  reached  the  active  principle  is  rapidly  weakened 
and  finally  destroyed  at  about  140°  F. 

The  activity  of  rennet  is  also  intimately  connected 
with  the  lime  salts  in  the  ash  of  the  milk,  and  par- 
ticularly with  their  condition  as  to  solubility.  The 
presence  of  soluble  salts  of  lime  renders  rennet  much 
more  active,  while  the  insoluble  salts  of  lime  have 


248  Milk   and  Its   Products 

a  correspondingly  retarding  effect.  Thus,  the  develop- 
ment of  lactic  acid  by  rendering  the  lime  salts  more 
soluble  hastens  the  action  of  rennet  on  the  milk.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  milk  is  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture above  150°  P.  a  part  of  the  lime  salts  is  made 
insoluble,  and  the  action  of  the  rennet  correspond- 
ingly retarded,  even  though  the  milk  be  again  cooled 
to  a  temperature  at  which  rennet  is  active.  The 
coagulability  of  milk  is  similarly  affected  by  the  addi- 
tion of  any  lime  salt  not  normally  present  in  milk. 
Thus,  if  calcium  oxalate  or  other  insoluble  salt  of 
lime  is  added  to  milk,  the  action  of  rennet  is 
retarded.  On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  cal- 
cium chloride  or  other  soluble  salt  is  followed,  by  a 
quicker  action  of  the  rennet. 

The  rennet  skin  should  be  obtained  from  an 
animal  of  some  age.  Still-born  calves,  or  calves  less 
than  three  days  old,  furnish  a  rennet  of  very  inferior 
quality.  The  calf  should  be  slaughtered  three  or 
four  hours  after  it  has  had  a  full  meal,  and  the 
fourth  stomach  carefully  taken  out.  This  should  be 
emptied  by  turning  inside  out  and  any  particles 
of  foreign  matter  carefully  picked  off ;  it  should 
not  be  washed  with  water.  It  should  then  be 
sprinkled  with  salt  and  stretched  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  will  readily  dry. 

At  the  present  time  the  preparation  of  the  rennet 
extract  from  the  skins  is  entirely  a  commercial  one, 
and  rennet  so  much  superior,  on  account  of  its 
uniform  strength  and  freedom  from  taints,  is  fur- 
nished in  this  way  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  prepare 


Separation    of    Whey  249 

the  rennet  for  use  from  the  skins.  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  extract,  the  skins  are  soaked  in  warm 
water  to  which  a  little  salt  has  been  added  until  the 
active  principle  has  been  completely  removed  from 
them.  The  resulting  extract  is  filtered,  and  preserva- 
tives, in  the  shape  of  salt  and  a  little  saltpetre, 
are  added.  Rennet  so  prepared  will  retain  its 
strength  and  purity  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  if  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 

Removal  of  whey. — After  the  coagulation  of  the 
milk  is  complete  its  constitution  is  as  follows  :  92.5 
parts  soluble,  7.5  parts  insoluble.  The  soluble  por- 
tions are  made  up  of  water  87,  sugar  4.5,  albumin 
.75,  ash  .25.  The  insoluble  are  made  up  of  casein 
3.25,  fat  3.75,  ash  .5.  The  separation  of  these  two 
is  the  chief  task  of  the  cheese  maker,  and  is  brought 
about  partly  by  mechanical  and  partly  by  chemical  or 
physical  agents.  The  chief  mechanical  agents  in 
the  separation  are  cutting  the  curd,  stirring,  and  the 
application  of  pressure.  The  chemical  and  phys- 
ical agents  in  effecting  the  separation  are :  First, 
application  of  heat ;  second,  development  of  lactic 
acid ;  third,  addition  of  salt ;  fourth,  curing  fermenta- 
tion. These  various  agents  may  be  applied  in  va- 
rious degrees  and  in  various  ways,  all  of  which  have 
a  greater  or  less  effect  upon  the  character  of  the 
resulting  cheese,  producing  an  almost  endless  variety 
of  product.  The  process  that  we  shall  describe  is 
one  in  common  use  in  America,  although  first  prac- 
ticed in  England.  It  it  known  as  the  American 
Cheddar  process,  and  is  a  modification  in  minor  de- 


250  Milk   and   Its   Products 

nails  of  the  process  first  em-ployed  at  least  250  years 
ago,  in  the  district  about  the  village  of  Cheddar  in 
Somerset,  England,  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
and  from  which  it  has  spread  more  or  less  over 
the  whole  world.  Cheddar  cheese  is  still  made  in 
Somerset,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
notably  Ayrshire.  It  is  with  minor  variations  the 
process  most  commonly  employed  in  the  United  States, 
Canada  and  Australia,  and  one  of  its  distinctive  fea- 
tures, namely  the  matting  of  the  curd  after  the  whey 
is  drawn,  is  used  in  making  many  other  varieties 
of  cheese,  as  the  Cheshire,  Leicestershire  and  Derby- 
shire in  England,  the  Edam  and  Gouda  in  Holland, 
and  perhaps  others. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CHEDDAR  CHEESE  MAKING 

THE  successive  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  Ched- 
dar cheese  may  be  conveniently  grouped  into  seven 
stages  or  periods,  as  follows  :  Period  first,  setting ; 
period  second,  cutting ;  period  third,  heating ;  period 
fourth,  cheddaring  ;  period  fifth,  grinding  ;  period 
sixth,  salting  and  pressing  ;  period  seventh,  curing. 

Period  I.,  setting. — The  rennet  is  most  active  at 
temperatures  from  near  that  of  the  body,  98°  to 
100°  F.,  up  to  about  130°  F.,  and  if  added  to  the 
milk  at  these  temperatures  will  most  quickly  cause 
coagulation  (p.  245),  but  at  high  temperatures  there 
is  more  tendency  of  the  fat  to  separate,  and  for  this 
reason  the  milk  is  warmed  to  a  degree  sufficient  to 
cause  fairly  rapid  coagulation,  and  at  the  same  time 
not  injure  the  fat.  This  will  vary  from  82°  to  86°  F., 
according  to  conditions.  The  milk,  when  brought  to 
the  factory,  is  collected  in  the  vats  and  the  whole 
mass  gradually  warmed  up  to  the  proper  tempera- 
ture, with  frequent  gentle  stirring  to  prevent  any 
separation  of  the  fat  in  the  form  of  cream.  When 
the  whole  mass  is  warmed  up  to  82°  the  milk  is 
tested  for  ripeness,  and  if  sufficiently  ripe  the  ren- 
net is  added  at  once,  but  if  the  milk  is  insuffi- 

(251) 


252  Milk   and   Its    Products 

ciently  ripe  a  starter  is  then  added,  and  the  milk 
allowed  to  stand  at  this  temperature  until  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  acid  has  developed,  care  being 
taken  that  it  is  frequently  stirred  and  no  cream 
allowed  to  rise. 

The  rennet  should  be  added  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  cause  the  milk  to  coagulate  in  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes,  and  to  be  ready  for  the  knife  in 
from  thirty  to  thirty -five  minutes.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  that  the  amount  of  rennet  added  had  an 
effect  upon  the  whole  process  of  manufacture,  and 
particularly  upon  the  curing  fermentation,  but  while 
the  matter  is  still  unsettled,  later  researches  go  to 
show  that  the  influence  of  the  rennet  upon  the 
curing  is  probably  very  slight.  The  amount  of  ren- 
net to  be  used  will  also  vary  with  the  strength  of  the 
extract  ;  .two  to  three  fluid  ounces  of  rennet,  of  or- 
dinary strength,  per  thousand  pounds  of  milk  is 
sufficient.  The  rennet  should  be  added  to  the  milk 
in  such  a  way  that  the  coagulation  will  be  uniform 
throughout  the  whole  mass.  If  the  rennet  is  added 
in  full  strength  and  at  a  high  temperature,  the 
milk  will  be  immediately  curdled  as  soon  as  the 
particles  of  rennet  come  in  contact  with  it,  and 
coagulation  will  begin  in  part  of  the  mass  before 
the  rennet  can  be  thoroughly  united  with  the  whole 
body  of  milk.  The  rennet  should  be  diluted  with 
twenty  to  fifty  times  its  own  bulk  of  cold  water. 
The  dilution  renders  the  uniform  mingling  of  the 
rennet  with  the  milk  easier,  and  the  cold  water 
keeps  it  inactive  until  it  has  been  warmed  up  to  the 


Setting   and    Cutting  253 

temperature  of  the  milk.  So  soon  as  the  rennet  is 
added,  the  milk  should  be  quickly  and  carefully 
stirred,  so  that  the  rennet  may  be  uniformly  mingled 
with  every  part  of  it.  This  stirring  should  continue 
until  the  mixture  of  rennet  and  milk  is  complete, 
but  should  stop  before  any  appearance  of  coagula- 
tion. The  milk  in  the  vat  is  then  allowed  to  be- 
come quiet,  and  remains  undisturbed  while  the  pro- 
cess of  coagulation  is  going  on,  the  object  being  to 
secure  a  uniformly  solid  clot  or  coagulum  through 
the  mass.  The  action  of  the  rennet  is  not  instanta- 
neous ;  the  first  appearance  of  coagulation  is  noticed 
by  a  slight  thickening  of  the  milk.  This  gradually 
increases  until  the  whole  mass  is  solid,  and  if  left 
undisturbed  the  action  of  the  rennet  continues  to 
contract  the  coagulated  casein  and  cause  a  partial 
separation  of  the  whey.  As  soon  as  the  coagulation 
is  strong  enough,  so  that  the  casein  will  maintain 
its  shape  when  broken,  the  contents  of  the  vat  are 
ready  for  the  next  step  in  the  process. 

Period  II.,  cutting.— The  curd,  as  the  coagulated 
casein  is  called,  is  ready  for  cutting  when  under 
strain  it  will  break  with  a  clean  fracture.  This  is 
conveniently  tested  by  gently  inserting  the  finger  in 
the  curd  in  an  oblique  position  and  slightly  raising 
it,  when  if  the  curd  breaks  clean  across  the  finger 
it  is  sufficiently  firm  for  cutting.  Cutting  is  per- 
formed in  order  to  facilitate  the  further  contraction 
of  the  casein  and  the  expulsion  of  the  whey.  For- 
merly the  solid  mass  of  curd  was  broken  up  into 
small  pieces  by  any  sort  of  an  instrument  that 


254  Milk  and  Its  Products 

might  be  at  hand,  or  simply  with  the  lingers,  no 
care  being  taken  that  the  pieces  of  curd  should  be 
of  uniform  shape  or  size,  but  now  gangs  of  steel 
knives,  in  one  of  which  the  blades  are  arranged 
horizontally  and  the  other  perpendicularly,  are  used 
to  cut  the  mass  of  curd  into  cubes  of  about  %  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  fat  is  retained  in  the 
cheese  by  being  enclosed  in  the  meshes  of  the  casein, 
and  in  breaking  up  the  mass  of  casein,  a  certain 
number  of  fat  globules  is  always  set  free.  The 
care  with  which  the  cutting  and  subsequent  hand- 
ling of  the  curd  is  done  controls  the  loss  of  fat 
through  this  source.  Formerly,  the  mass  of  curd 
was  allowed  to  become  very  firm  before  cutting,  but 
the  more  recent  practice  has  shown  that  the  best 
results  in  expelling  the  whey  from  the  curd  are 
reached  when  the  curd  is  cut,  so  soon  as  it  has 
sufficiently  coagulated  to  maintain  its  form.  The 
curd  is  cut  by  passing  the  horizontal  knife  through 
the  vat,  usually  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  and  then 
by  passing  the  perpendicular  knife  both  longitudi- 
nally and  crosswise  of  the  vat.  It  is  immaterial 
whether  the  horizontal  or  perpendicular  knives  are 
used  first.  Some  skilled  cheese -makers  prefer  the 
one  practice  and  some  the  other.  The  object  to  be 
attained  is  to  break  up  the  curd  into  as  uniform 
a  mass  of  kernels  as  possible,  or,  in  the  language 
of  the  cheese -maker,  to  secure  an  "even  cut."  After 
the  curd  is  cut,  the  whey  begins  to  escape,  and  the 
curd  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  If  allowed  to 
remain  undisturbed,  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  particles 


Heating   or    Cooking  255 

of  curd  readily  unite,  and  in  breaking  them  apart 
again  more  fat  is  lost.  Hence  as  soon  as  the  curd 
is  cut,  gentle  agitation  of  the  whole  mass  should 
begin.  This  agitation  should  be  sufficient  to  cause 
the  particles  to  move  upon  one  another,  but  not 
violent  enough  to  break  them  up.  The  curd  rapidly 
shrinks  and  hardens  ;  more  rapidly  upon  the  outside 
than  the  inside.  This  soon  results  in  the  formation 
of  a  so-called  "membrane,"  which  not  only  tends 
to  prevent  the  particles  from  sticking  together,  but 
affords  some  resistance  to  further  breaking  up.  This 
"membrane"  is  pervious  to  water,  but  retains  the 
globules  of  fat  ;  so  as  soon  as  the  contraction  has 
reached  this  point,  or  when  the  curd  is  well  "healed 
over,"  the  further  expulsion  of  the  water  should  be 
aided  by  heat,  and  this  point  begins  the  third  step. 
Period  III.,  heating  or  cooking. — The  term  "cook- 
ing," as  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  is  a 
misnomer  so  far  as  it  relates  to  any  change  in  the 
composition  or  condition  of  the  material  through 
the  effect  of  heat.  By  cooking  any  ordinary  sub- 
stance is  meant  the  application  of  a  degree  of  heat 
sufficient  to  cause  a  coagulation  of  albuminous  sub- 
stances or  a  breaking  down  of  starchy  ones.  The 
degree  of  heat  used  in  cheese  making  during  this 
stage  never  reaches  anywhere  near  this  point,  and 
never,  except  in  rare  instances,  is  a  temperature  of 
blood  heat  exceeded.  The  change  to  be  brought  about 
in  this  process  is  wholly  the  contraction  of  the  curd 
and  the  consequent  expulsion  of  water  from  within 
the  particles.  To  this  end  the  heat  serves  a  two- 


25.6  Milk   and  Its   Products 

fold  and  important  part.  The  curd  is  contracted  to 
some  extent  by  the  action  of  the  rennet  still  con- 
tinuing ;  also  to  some  extent  by  the  direct  applica- 
tion of  the  heat,  but  to  a  greater  extent  by  the 
effect  of  lactic  acid  upon  the  curd,  the  production 
of  lactic  acid  being  greatly  favored  by  the  increased 
temperature.  It  is  desirable  that  this  contraction  of 
the  curd  in  the  cooking  stage  go  on  uniformly  through- 
out the  whole  mass.  The  heat  is  therefore  applied 
gradually  and  with  constant  stirring.  As  the  parti- 
cles of  curd  shrink  in  size,  the  tendency  for  them 
to  unite  in  masses  constantly  diminishes;  and  they 
are  broken  with  greater  difficulty,  so  that  while  at 
first  extreme  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  par- 
ticles of  curd  from  becoming  broken,  as  the  temper- 
ature rises,  the  stirring  may  become  more  rapid  and 
vigorous.  The  heat  should  be  raised  slowly  from 
the  setting  point  of  the  milk  up  to  98°  F.,  and  it 
should  not  be  more  rapid  than  2°  in  five  minutes; 
and  unless  the  lactic  acid  develops  very  rapidly  it 
is  better  to  take  even  more  time  than  this.  When 
the  temperature  of  98°  F.  is  reached,  the  stirring 
may  cease  and  the  particles  of  curd  be  allowed  to 
settle  upon  the  bottom  of  the  vat  until  the  curd  is 
thoroughly  shrunken  and  a  sufficient  amount  of 
lactic  acid  has  been  developed.  At  the  end  of  the 
cooking  stage  the  particles  of  curd  should  have 
shrunken  to  less  than  one -half  of  their  former  size, 
and  should  have  become  so  hard  that  when  pressed 
together  between  the  hands,  and  the  pressure  sud- 
denly relaxed,  they  will  fall  apart,  and  show  no 


Cheddaring   or  Matting  257 

tendency  to  stick  together.  By  this  time  there  should 
have  developed  a  sufficient  amount  of  lactic  acid  so 
that  the  curd  will  draw  out  in  fine  threads  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long  when  applied  to  the  hot 
iron. 

When  the  curd  has  reached  the  highest  temper- 
ature, it  may  be  allowed  to  settle,  and  a  part  of  the 
whey  may  be  drawn  off  the  top  of  the  vat.  This 
is  of  advantage  particularly  when  the  development 
of  lactic  acid  is  likely  to  be  rapid,  and  ,it  is  de- 
sirable to  separate  the  whey  from  the  curd  in  a  very 
short  time,  but  sufficient  whey  should  be  left  to 
cover  all  of  the  curd  two  or  three  inches  deep 
until  sufficient  acid  has  been  developed  for  the 
cheddaring  process. 

Period  IV.,  cheddaring,  or  matting.  — When  suffi- 
cient acid  has  developed  in  the  whey,  it  is  drawn 
off  from  the  vat  through  the  gate  or  by  means 
of  a  syphon.  The  curd  is  then  allowed  to  mat 
together  into  a  mass,  which  is  the  distinctive  fea- 
ture of  the  cheddar  process.  This  matting  together 
may  be  done  either  in  the  vat  or  in  a  special 
vessel,  called  a  curd  sink.  In  the  former  case, 
when  all  the  whey  is  run  off  the  particles  of  curd 
are  brought  together  upon  the  two  sides  of  the  vat 
and  a  channel  opened  between  them,  so  that  any 
whey  held  by  the  particles  of  curd  may  be  al- 
lowed to  escape.  When  the  particles  of  curd  are 
sufficiently  matted  together  to  maintain  themselves  in- 
tact, the  mass  is  cut  up  into  blocks  about  8x8x12 
inches,  and  these  blocks  are  turned  over  so  that 

Q 


258  Milk   and   Its   Products 

the  part  that  was  uppermost  comes  in  contact  with 
the  bottom  of  the  vat.  A  further  draining  of  the 
whey  takes  place,  and  the  blocks  of  curd  are  next 
piled  upon  one  another  two  deep,  care  being  taken 
in  forming  these  piles  that  the  parts  that  were  ex- 
posed to  the  air  are  turned  in.  Later  on  the  curd 
is  piled  again  in  still  deeper  piles,  and  as  the  pro- 
cess continues  the  mass  is  piled  over  and  over 
again,  care  being  taken  that  the  exposed  parts  of  one 
pile  are  put  into  the  interior  of  the  succeeding,  so 
that  the  heat  may  be  uniform  throughout  the  whole 
mass.  In  the  curd  sink  the  manipulation  is  not 
essentially  different.  The  curd  sink  is  a  square 
wooden  receptacle  fitted  with  a  false  slatted  bottom 
and  covered  with  coarse  cotton  or  linen  cloth, 
through  which  the  whey  can  easily  escape.  When 
the  time  comes  for  separating  the  whey,  so  much 
as  will  run  off  readily  is  drawn  off,  and  the  re- 
maining whey,  mixed  with  particles  of  curd,  is 
dipped  into  the  sink,  the  whey  runs  off  freely 
through  the  strainer  and  slatted  bottom,  and  the 
curd,  being  spread  over  the  whole  surface  of 
the  sink,  soon  mats  into  a  solid  mass,  and  the 
piling  process  goes  on  the  same  way  as  is  done 
in  the  vat.  During  this  process  various  changes 
take  place.  The  pressure  of  the  particles  of  curd 
upon  one  another  serves  to  expel  a  large  part  of 
the  whey  that  still  remains ;  at  the  same  time  the 
temperature  is  kept  sufficiently  high  so  that  the 
production  of  lactic  acid  is  not  checked.  The  effect 
of  the  acid  is  to  cause  a  series  of  marked  changes 


Grinding  259 

in  the  physical  condition  of  the  curd.  From  the 
condition  of  a  tough,  spongy  mass  when  first  ched- 
dared,  the  curd  changes  into  a  smooth,  elastic, 
fibrous  condition,  not  unlike  the  physical  appearance 
of  well  cooked,  lean  meat.  When  the  curd  reaches 
the  condition  above  described  it  is  ready  for  the 
next  step  in  the  process,  and  by  this  time  sufficient 
lactic  acid  will  have  developed  so  that  fine  threads 
may  be  drawn  out  two  to  three  inches  on  a  hot 
iron. 

Period  F.,  grinding. — When  the  curd   is  ready   for 
grinding,    the    whey   has    been    removed  to    so    great 

an  extent  that  the  pro- 
duction of  lactic  acid 
measurably  stops.  The 
curd  is  ground  in  or- 
der to  reduce  it  to 
particles  of  convenient 
size  for  receiving  the 
salt  and  for  pressing 
into  a  solid  mass  in 
the  cheese.  The  grind- 
ing, or  more  properly 
the  cutting,  is  done  in 
special  machines  known 

Fig.  25.     "Harris"  curd  mill.  ^     curd  millSt         Qf    the 

various  styles  of  mills,  those  are  best  which  cut 
the  curd  into  pieces  of  uniform  size,  without  tearing 
it  apart,  for  the  reason  that  when  so  treated  less  fat 
escapes  and  the  uniformity  of  size  of  the  pieces  aids 
in  the  proper  and  even  absorption  of  the  salt  by  the 


260 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


curd.    After  the  curd  is  ground,  it  is  kept  sufficiently 
stirred   to   keep   the   particles    from   matting   together 


Fig.  43.    "  MacPherson"  curd  mill. 

again.  A  further  maturing  of  the  curd  takes  place, 
during  which  it  takes  on  a  peculiar  nutty  flavor, 
and  the  particles  of  casein  begin  to  break  down 
so  that  the  fat  may  be  re- 
moved by  pressure.  When 
this  stage  is  reached  the  curd 
is  ready  for  the  next  step, 
which  is  salting. 

Period  VI.,  salting  .—Salt  is 
added  to  the  curd  primarily  for 
the  sake  of  the  flavor  it  im- 
parts to  the  cheese,  just  as 
salt  is  added  to  butter:  but  the 
addition  of  the  salt  to  the  curd 
Fie.  44.  Section  of  "  Pohi"  has  a  further  effect  in  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture.  The  salt 

makes    the    curd    drier    by   reason   of    extracting   the 
water  for   its    own   solution,    and    at    the    same   time 


Halting   and   Pressing.  261 

hardens  the  curd.  It  also  checks  the  further  devel- 
opment of  lactic  acid.  The  salt  should  be  uniformly 
mixed  through  the  curd,  and  the  curd  kept  stirred 
until  it  is  fully  dissolved.  A  salt  of  rather  coarse 
grain  is  preferable  for  cheese.  It  requires  a  some- 
what longer  time  for  solution,  and  the  particles  of 
the  salt  are  carried  to  the  centre  of  the  pieces  of 
curd  more  effectually.  When  the.  salt  is  thoroughly 
dissolved  the  curd  is  ready  to  put  in  the  press. 

During  the  cheddaring  and  grinding  -stage  va- 
rious means,  as  covering  with  cloths,  etc.,  have 
been  taken  to  keep  up  the  temperature  of  the  curd, 
and  at  the  time  when  the  cheese  is  ready  to  salt 
it  should  not  be  below  90°  F.  When  the  salt  is 
added  the  curd  should  be  spread  out  thin,  so  that 
it  will  cool  off,  and  when  it  is  put  into  the  press 
should  be  at  a  temperature  of  from  78°  to  82°  F. 
If  the  curd  is  put  in  the  press  too  warm,  the  fat 
is  more  easily  pressed  out  and  lost.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  curd  is  at  too  low  a  temperature  when 
put  in  the  press,  it  is  more  difficult  to  make  the 
particles  adhere  together  into  a  solid  mass.  The 
object  of  pressing  the  cheese  is  to  bring  it  into  a 
form  suitable  for  transportation  and  convenient  for 
consumption.  The  pressure  also  removes  any  surplus 
moisture  that  is  in  the  curd ;  but  the  primary  object 
of  pressing  is  not  to  remove  moisture.  In  fact,  all 
of  the  moisture  that  is  removed  from  the  cheese  by 
the  press  is  that  held  by  capillarity  between  the  par- 
ticles of  curd,  and  practically  none  can  be  expressed 
from  the  particles  themselves.  If  the  curd  is  too 


262 


Milk    and   Its   Products 


wet  at  this  stage,  it  is  because  care  was  not  taken 
to  expel  the  moisture  from  the  particles  of  the 
curd  in  the  cooking  process,  and  it  cannot  be  re- 
moved by  extra  pressure.  An  ideal  condition  of 


Fig.  45.     "  Fraser"  continuous  pressure  gang  cheese  press. 

the  cheese  is  to  so  press  it  that  the  particles  will 
unite  together  in  as  nearly  as  may  be  a  solid 
mass.  This  will  depend  upon  the  temperature  and 
maturity  of  the  curd.  If  the  curd  is  put  in  press 
at  the  stage  of  maturity  corresponding  to  the 
beginning  of  the  cheddaring  period,  it  will  be 
very  difficult  to  cause  it  to  unite  in  a  firm  mass  ; 
but  if  it  is  allowed  to  mature  until  the  casein 
shows  signs  of  breaking  down,  and  then  is  not 


Curing  263 

lower  than  78°  F.,  a  slight  amount  of  pressure 
will  cause  the  particles  to  unite  in  a  smooth  and 
solid  mass.  The  pressure  should  be  uniform  and 
continuous  for  at  least  twenty  hours.  Where  a 
screw  press  is  used,  care  must  be  taken  to  tighten 
the  screws  as  rapidly  as  they  become  loose,  partic- 
ularly for  the  first  hour  after  the  cheese  is  put  in 
the  press.  Those  presses  that  are  fitted  with  ap- 
pliances for  taking  up  the  slack  and  making  the 
pressure  continuous  show  excellent  results  in  the 
texture  of  the  cheese.  After  the  cheese  has  been 
in  the  press  for  three -fourths  of  an  hour  it  should 
be  taken  out,  turned,  the  bandage  straightened,  and 
the  whole  cheese  wiped  with  a  cloth  wrung  out  of 
water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  by  the  hand.  This 
warming  of  the  surface  aids  in  the  formation  of  a 
firm,  transparent  rind,  and  it  improves  the  appear- 
ance of  the  cured  cheese.  Seamless  bandage  is 
practically  the  only  kind  now  used,  and  it  should 
be  cut  of  such  a  length  that  it  will  extend  over 
each  end  of  the  cheese  for  an  inch  and  a  half  or 
two  inches  ;  when  the  cheese  is  put  in  the  press, 
circular  cap  cloths  should  be  put  between  the  ends 
of  the  cheese  and  the  follower.  These  cap  cloths  are 
allowed  to  remain  upon  the  cheese  after  it  is  taken 
from  the  press  and  while  it '  is  curing,  and  are  re- 
moved just  before  the  cheese  is  boxed  for  market. 

Period  VII. ,  curing.  —  The  green  cheese,  when 
taken  from  the  press,  if  exposed  to  a  temperature 
of  about  70°  in  a  pure  atmosphere,  undergoes  a 
series  of  fermentations  which  result  in  breaking 


264  Milk   and   Its   Products 

down  or  rendering  soluble  the  casein  and  in  the 
development  of  the  characteristic  flavors  peculiar  to 
good  cheese.  These  flavors  are  almost  entirely  de- 
veloped during  the  ripening  process.  The  ripening 
is  brought  about  by  a  series  of  fermentations  that 
goes  on  in  the  cheese.  It  is  not  well  understood 
just  what  these  fermentations  are ;  but  it  seems 
evident  that  at  least  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
curing,  lactic  acid  germs  are  active,  although  the 
greater  majority  of  these  disappear  after  a  short 
time.  During  the  ripening  process,  oxygen  is  taken 
up  and  carbonic  acid  given  off.  The  quality  of 
the  cheese  is  best  when  the  ripening  process  goes 
on  gradually  and  continually.  The  higher  the  tem- 
perature the  faster  the  ripening  will  go  on ,  an 
extreme  temperature  of  65°  or  70°  giving  the  best 
results.  At  the  end  of  from  four  to  six  weeks  the 
casein  will  be  so  broken  down  that  the  cheese  is 
fairly  digestible  and  fit  for  consumption,  though  if 
kept  longer  under  good  conditions  the  cheese  will 
improve  for  three  or  four  months,  and  then  if  kept 
moderately  cool,  and  in  not  too  moist  nor  too  dry 
an  atmosphere,  it  may  be  kept  one  or  two  years. 

If  the  cheese  is  well  made,  if  the  whey  has  been 
thoroughly  separated  in  the  process  of  making  and  if 
the  milk  was  sound  and  free  from  taints,  the  ripening 
process  will  go  on  regularly  even  at  low  temperatures, 
though  the  time  required  is  much  longer.  The  result- 
ing cheese  will  be  of  the  best  possible  flavor  and  tex- 
ture. The  practice  is  now  quite  general  to  remove  the 
cheese  at  the  age  of  seven  to  ten  days  at  once  to  cold 


"Gassy"    Curds  265 

storage  (30°  to  35°  F.)  and  to  leave  them  there  for 
several  months  till  fully  ripe.  This  practice  is  par- 
ticularly common  with  cheese  intended  for  winter  or 
export  trade.  During  the  early  part  of  the  curing 
process  the  cheeses  should  be  turned  upon  the  shelves 
every  day  until  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  has  evapo- 
rated, so  that  they  no  longer  tend  to  lose  their  shape. 
Difficulties  likely  to  occur  in  cheddar  cheese  mak- 
ing.— The  chief  difficulty  in  cheddar  cheese  making 
comes  from  the  presence  in  the  milk  df  germs 
which  produce  fermentations  that  are  undesirable 
These  fermentations  usually  begin  during  the  cook- 
ing process,  and  continue  through  cheddaring.  Or- 
dinarily they  evolve  a  considerable  amount  of  gas, 
causing  what  are  known  as  floating  or  gassy  curds, 
and  are  usually  accompanied  by  disagreeable  odors 
and  flavors.  The  formation  of  the  gas  in  the  curd 
gives  it  a  sponge -like  texture,  and  when  the  par- 
ticles of  curd  are  cut  across  they  are  seen  to  be 
full  of  minute  holes,  the  condition  usually  denom- 
inated pin-holes.  The  best  means  of  treating  this 
trouble  is,  of  course,  prevention;  but  even  with  the 
utmost  care  by  makers  of  experience,  milk  contain- 
ing the  germs  of  these  fermentations  will  find  its 
way  into  the  vat. 

In  many  cases  the  trouble  from  gassy  and  tainted 
milk  is  caused  by  the  milk  of  one  or  two  dairies, 
and  in  exceptional  cases  the  milk  of  a  single  cow 
may  infect  a  whole  vat.  The  particular  dairies  or 
even  cows  that  are  causing  the  trouble  may  usually  be 
detected  by  employing  one  of  the  fermentation  tests 


266  ;       Milk   and   Its   Products 

described  in  Appendix  A.  Ordinarily  these  fermenta- 
tions do  not  work  with  the  lactic  fermentation  ;  each 
hinders  the  action  of  the  other  so  that  the  chief 
means  of  overcoming  the  difficulty  of  gas  or  pin-hole 
curds  is  to  favor  in  every  way  possible  the  pro- 
duction of  lactic  acid.  To  this  end  the  milk  is 
well  ripened  before  the  rennet  is  added,  and  the 
heat  is  raised  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  a  higher 
temperature  of  cooking  than  ordinarily  is  used.  In 
extreme  cases  the  curds  may  be  heated  as  high 
as  104°  F.  After  the  whey  has  been  drawn  great 
care  is  taken  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  curd 
from  falling,  and  at  the  same  time  the  escape  of 
the  gas  is  favored  by  frequent  turning  and  piling 
of  the  curd.  Where  the  curds  are  gassy  the  ched- 
daring  process  must  be  continued  until  the  formation 
of  gas  has  ceased  and  the  holes  in  the  curd  have 
collapsed.  In  extreme  cases,  where  the'  gassy  curds 
have  produced  very  strong,  undesirable  flavors,  these 
may  be  removed  by  drenching  with  hot  water.  The 
means  used  to  prevent  the  development  of  gas,  and 
to  get  rid  of  the  gas  already  formed,  ordinarily  favor 
the  escape  of  fat  from  the  cheese,  so  that  while  the 
bad  effects  of  the  gassy  curd  may  be  largely  elimi- 
nated from  the  finished  cheese,  still  it  is  always  done 
at  the  expense  of  a  certain  loss  of  fat. 

Another  difficulty  that  often  confronts  the  cheese- 
maker  is  that  coming  from  the  milk  arriving  in  too 
ripe  a  condition,  not  necessarily  accompanied  by  un- 
desirable fermentations.  In  the  case  of  such  milk, 
the  development  of  lactic  acid  is  very  rapid  and  the 


Flavor   and    Texture  267 

curds,  technically  described,  "work  fast."  When  this 
occurs,  the  production  of  lactic  acid  is  more  rapid 
than  the  shrinking  of  the  curd,  and  the  whey  is 
sufficiently  acid  to  be  drawn  off  before  the  curd  has 
shrunken  down.  In  this  case,  the  curd  should  be 
thoroughly  and  continually  stirred  after  the  whey 
is  drawn  until  the  whey  has  been  well  worked  out 
before  the  curd  is  allowed  to  cheddar ;  but  where 
it  is  known  at  the  beginning  of  the  process  that 
the  milk  is  over -ripe,  care  should  be  taken  through- 
out the  whole  process  to  use  every  means  to  re- 
tard the  formation  of  lactic  acid,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  cause  as  rapid  a  shrinking  of  the  curd  as 
possible.  To  this  endi  the  milk  may  be  set  at  a 
lower  temperature  and  a  larger  amount  of  rennet 
used,  and  when  the  curd  is  cut  it  should  be  stirred 
until  the  whey  has  well  separated  before  the  heat- 
ing process  begins.  With  care  in  these  particulars, 
there  is  slight  danger  of  the  formation  of  acid  be- 
fore the  curd  has  shrunken  down. 

Qualities  of  cheese.  — A  well  cured  cheddar  cheese 
of  good  quality  should  have  about  the  following 
composition : 

Per  cent. 

Water 34. 

Fat 36.8 

Casein  and  albumin '.....  25.7 

Sugar,  ash,  etc.  (largely  salt) 3.5 

100. 

The  characteristic  flavors  should  be  well  pro- 
nounced but  not  strong,  depending  somewhat  upon 
the  age  of  the  cheese.  The  flavor  should  also  be 


268  Milk   and   Its    Products 

clean ;  that  is,  free  from  any  flavors  due  to  the 
influence  of  undesirable  fermentations  or  to  foreign 
matters  that  may  have  gained  access  to  the  milk 
through  the  food  or  otherwise.  The  texture  should 
be  solid,  smooth  and  firm.  When  bored  with  the 
trier,  the  plug  should  come  out  solid,  or  nearly  so, 
and  smooth.  There  should  be  no  moisture  visible 
in  any  part,  and  no  appearance  of  any  separation 
of  the  fat  from  the  casein.  When  crushed,  the  cheese 
should  readily  break  down  into  a  smooth,  unctuous 
mass,  without  indication  of  the  presence  of  undue 
moisture,  and  should  emit  a  pleasant,  nutty  flavor. 
When  broken  across,  the  flaky  texture  should  be 
manifest,  the  so-called  "flinty  break."  The  color 
should  be  uniform,  not  mottled,  and  with  more  or 
less  of  a  tendency  to  translucence,  especially  in  new 
uncolored  cheese.  The  rind  should  be  smooth,  with- 
out cracks,  hard  and  transparent.  The  bandage 
should  extend  evenly  over  the  ends  of  the  cheese  for 
about  two  inches  and  should  be  straight  and  smooth. 
The  ends  of  the  cheese  should  be  parallel  and  the 
sides  straight.  These  various  qualities  are  usually 
ranked  according  to  the  following  scale  : 

Per  cent. 

Flavor    45 

Texture 35 

Color : 15 

Finish 5 

100 


CHAPTER   XV 

OTHER    VARIETIES   OF  CHEESE 

SLIGHT  variations  in  any  of  the  minor  details  of 
the  cheese  making  processes  have  a  distinct  influence 
on  the  character  of  the  finished  product.  A  natural 
result  of  this  is  that  the  varieties  of  cheese  are 
almost  innumerable.  Von  Klenze*  in  his  Hand  Book 
of  Cheese  Technology  describes  no  less  than  156  dif- 
ferent kinds,  whose  manufacture  is  distributed  through 
Europe  and  America.  Not  only  is  the  number  of  dis- 
tinct kinds  very  large,  but  the  same  kind  or  variety 
varies  greatly  in  character  and  quality,  according  to 
the  conditions  under  which  it  is  made.  Without  at- 
tempting to  accurately  classify  the  various  kinds  of 
cheese,  it  may  be  said  that  they  fall  roughly  into 
about  three  natural  groups  or  classes.  First,  those 
whose  chief  characteristics  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  water  that  has  been  removed  in  the  process  of 
manufacture.  These  we  may  call  hard  or  soft  cheeses. 
Second,  those  whose  qualities  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  fat  which  the  cheese  contains,  whether 
it  is  the  normal  amount  of  the  milk,  whether  a  part 
of  the  fat  has  been  removed,  as  in  the  case  of 
skimmed  or  partially  skimmed  cheeses,  or  whether  fat 
has  been  added  to  the  milk  as  in  the  case  of  the  so- 

*Von  Klenze,  Handbuch  der  Kaserei-Technik,  Bremen,  1884. 

(269) 


270  Milk   and  Its   Products 

called  cream  cheeses.  And  third  those  whose  dis 
tinctive  characteristics  depend  upon  the  sort  of  fer- 
mentation to  which  they  have  been  subjected.  The 
details  of  manufacture  upon  which  the  peculiar  char- 
acters depend  are,  in  many  cases,  so  intricate  and 
minute  that  it  is  practically  impossible  so  to  describe 
them  that  a  novice  might  successfully  follow  out  the 
directions.  The  actual  practice  must  in  most  cases 
be  learned  at  the  hands  of  an  experienced  teacher. 
We  shall,  therefore,  limit  our  discussion  to  a  few  of 
the  better  known  and  most  largely  manufactured 
varieties.  _  The  introduction  of  the  so-called  fancy 
varieties  in  America  is  in  its  infancy,  but  is  rapidly 
developing,  and  bids  fair  to  become  a  most  impor- 
tant diversification  of  the  dairy  industry. 

American  home -trade,  or  stirred -curd  cheese. — The 
popular  consumptive  demand  of  most  American  mar- 
kets requires  a  softer  and  milder  flavored  cheese 
than  the  eheddar  or  export  type.  This  is  brought 
about  by  incorporating  a  larger  amount  of  water  with 
the  curd,  and  by  hastening  the  curing  process,  and 
not  curing  it  so  far  as  is  ordinarily  done  with  a  well- 
ripened  eheddar.  The  details  of  the  manufacture  of 
the  American  home -trade  and  the  American  eheddar 
or  export  are  in  the  main  similar.  In  fact,  the  two 
processes  merge  into  one  another  in  such  a  way  that 
we  find  a  regular  gradation  in  the  cheese  from  the 
softest,  mildest,  short-keeping  stirred-curd  cheese  to 
the  most  solid,  long -keeping  eheddar.  The  distinctive 
differences  in  the  two  processes  of  manufacture  are 
that  in  the  home -trade  cheese,  after  drawing  the  whey 


"Home- Trade,"  or  «  Stirred -Curd"  271 

the  curd  is  not  allowed  to  mat  into  a  mass  or  ched- 
dar,  but  is  kept  stirred  in  such  a  way  that  the  whey 
will  drain  off  until  it  is  dry  enough  so  that  the  par- 
ticles of  curd  will  not  unite.  It  is  then  salted  and, 
with  more  or  less  further  maturing  of  the  curd,  is 
pressed  and  cured.  The  character  of  the  resulting 
cheese,  however,  depends  quite  as  much  upon  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  changes  that  go  on  in 
the  curd  after  the  whey  is  drawn,  and  before  it  is 
put  into  press,  as  upon  the  mere  fact  of  allowing  it 
to  pack  in  a  mass  (cheddar)  or  keeping  it  apart  by 
stirring.  If  the  cheddar  variety  is  ground  shortly  after 
matting,  and  immediately  salted  and  put  to  press, 
the  resulting  cheese  will  resemble  the  stirred -curd 
type.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  stirred -curd  is  kept 
warm  and  frequently  stirred,  many  of  the  same 
changes  will  go  on  as  in  the  cheddared  curd,  and 
the  cheese  when  cured  will  resemble  the  cheddar  type. 
Another  distinction  between  the  two  processes  is  that 
in  the  case  of  the  cheddar  cheese  the  aim  is  to  get  rid  of 
all  the  water  consistent  with  a  compact  union  of  the  par- 
ticles of  casein.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  stirred-curd 
cheese,  on  the  other  hand,  the  aim  is  to  retain  as  much 
water  as  possible  without  having  it  appear  in  the  form 
of  free  water  in  the  cheese.  To  this  end,  in  the  stirred- 
curd  process  those  influences  which  tend  to  contact  the 
curd,  namely,  the  application  of  heat  and  the  development 
of  lactic  acid,  are  not  carried  so  far  as  in  the  cheddar  pro- 
cess. In  fact,  in  many  cases  they  are  not  carried  far 
enough  to  remove  all  of  the  water,  and  some  remains  in 
the  cheese,  making  a  "wet,"  "sloppy"  or  "leaky"  cheese. 


272  Milk   and   Its   Products 

In  order  to  obviate  the  difficulties  that  arise  from 
leaving  too  much  whey  in  the  curd  and  still  make  a 
cheese  of  soft  texture,  the  practice  of  "washing"  or 
"soaking"  curds  has  come  into  use.  '  An  ordinary 
cheddar  or  stirred-curd  is  made,  making  it  dry  and  firm. 
When  ready  for  the  press  the  curd  is  immersed  in  cold 
water  (60°  F.)  for  fifteen  to  forty  minutes.  The  water 
acts  to  remove  bad  flavors  that  may  have  been  pres- 
ent in  the  milk  and  the  curd  swells  and  absorbs  a 
considerable  amount  of  water.  The  resulting  cheese 
has  a  soft  melting  texture  but  the  flavor  is  usually 
deficient  or  no  better  than  would  have  resulted  from 
leaving  too  much  whey  in  the  curd. 

Because  of  the  larger  amount  of  water  it  contains, 
this  kind  of  cheese  is  profitable  to  the  producer  of 
the  milk  and  to  the  manufacturer,  and  when  properly 
made  and  carefully  cured,  it  may  be  of  excellent 
quality,  being  mild,  creamy  and  soft;  but  largely, 
too,  because  of  the  large  amount  of  water  contained 
in  it,  it  is  easily  subject  to  decomposition  changes,  goes 
off  flavor  rapidly,  and  does  not  bear  transportation  well. 

Sage  cheese. — In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  this 
cheese  is  very  popular  for  local  consumption.  Its 
manufacture  is  not  different  from  the  ordinary  type  of 
cheese,  either  cheddar  or  stirred-curd,  but  an  infusion 
of  sage  leaves,  or  sage  extract  (in  which  latter  case  the 
green  color  is  secured  by  an  infusion  of  fresh  leaves  of 
any  inert  plant,  as  clover,  green  corn,  etc.),  is  added  to 
the  milk  before  the  rennet  coagulation,  and  imparts  a 
light  greenish  color  and  characteristic  flavor  to  the  curd . 
Ordinarily,  where  sage  cheese  is  made,  the  sage  is 


Young   America   and   Neuf chattel  273 

added  to  only  a  part  of  the  milk,  and  two  separate 
cards  are  manufactured  simultaneously,  and  mixed 
together  as  they  are  put  in  the  press,  resulting  in 
cheese  of  a  mottled  green  color. 

Young  America,  picnics,  pineapple,  and  truckle 
cheese. —  These  are  names  applied  to  various  forms 
of  small  cheeses.  The  truckle  and  Young  America 
cheeses  in  particular  are  small  cheeses  of  the  ched- 
dar  or  other  common  type,  pressed  in  sizes  of  six 
to  ten  pounds  weight.  Picnics  are  somewhac  larger 
and  are  usually  pressed  in  10 -inch  hoops  and  weigh 
from  20  to  25  pounds.  They  are  usually  soft  and 
mild -flavored.  The  pineapple  cheeses  are  pressed  in 
shapes  suggested  by  their  name,  and  are  generally 
made  as  firm  and  solid  'as  possible. 

Neufchatel  is  a  soft  uncured  cheese,  made  by  coagu- 
lating milk  with  rennet,  allowing  the  resulting  curd 
to  become  mildly  acid  and  then  removing  the  sur- 
plus moisture  by  drainage  and  pressure,  after  which 
the  curd  is  ground,  salted,  molded  in  small  cylin- 
ders 1%  inches  in  diameter  by  2%  inches  long  and 
wrapped  first  in  thin  parchment  paper  and  then  in 
tin  foil.  Good  Neufchatel  should  be  soft,  smooth 
and  melting  in  the  mouth  without  "mushiness,"  due 
to  the  retention  of  too  much  moisture.  When  properly 
made  it  can  be  subjected  to  very  heavy  pressure  with- 
out losing  its  melting  texture.  Its  flavor  when 
fresh  is  simply  the  flavor  of  clean,  mildly  acid  coagu- 
lated milk.  The  successful  manufacture  of  Neuf- 
chatel depends  upon  securing  both  fine  texture  and 
good  flavor,  for  while,  as  a  rule,  these  two  qualities 
R 


274  Milk   and   Its   Products 

are  closely  connected,  it  is  quite  possible  to  have 
good  texture  with  objectionable  flavor.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  same  conditions  of  temperature  and 
germ  growth  that  are  most  favorable  to  ripening 
cream  for  churning  are  also  most  favorable  for  the 
manufacture  of  Neufchatel  cheese.  At  any  rate,  the 
milk  should  have  some  degree  of  ripeness  before  the 
rennet  is  added.  It  is  essential  that  the  milk  be 
clean  and  pure,  that  the  acidity  is  developed  to  the 
proper  point  in  the  curd,  and  that  sufficient  pressure 
is  applied.  When  experience  in  these  last  two  points 
is  gained,  the  remainder  of  the  process  is  compara- 
tively simple,  and  in  fact,  many  of  the  details  may 
be  varied  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Good  clean 
milk  is  not  less  important  than  in  cheddar  cheese 
making,  as  gassy  ferments  often  make  trouble.  A 
good  pure -culture  starter,  giving  a  mild  develop- 
ment of  acid,  will  prove  of  great  assistance  in  hand- 
ling gassy  milk.  The  rennet  is  added  to  the  milk 
at  a  low  temperature  (70°  to  80°  F.)  at  the  rate  of 
1%  to  2%  ounces  per  1,000  pounds.  Too  little  ren- 
net will  give  trouble  by  making  a  curd  that  is  very 
difficult  to  drain,  and  that  tends  to  pass  through 
the  press  cloths  when  pressed.  An  excess  of  rennet 
results  in  a  curd  of  hard  texture.  It  is  better  to 
add  the  rennet  to  the  whole  mass  of  milk  in  'a  vat, 
and  then  as  soon  as  the  rennet  is  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  milk,  to  draw  it  off  into  "shot-gun"  cans 
(8  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  deep)  for  coagu- 
lation. The  milk  should  be  warm  enough  and  also 
ripe  enough,  so  that  coagulation  will  take  place 


Neu/chatel  275 

before  much  cream  rises  to  the  surface.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  room  may  vary  within  rather  wide 
limits,  though  if  it  is  above  80°  F.  the  curd  is  likely 
to  be  hard  and  tough,  while  if  it  is  60°  F.  or  below, 
the  curd  is  not  injured,  though  the  process  is  greatly 
retarded.  Probably  the  same  rule  holds  here  as  in 
cream -ripening,  namely,  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
name  a  single  temperature  arbitrarily  as  the  cor- 
rect one.  The  most  important  point  in  the  whole 
process  is  to  determine  wfaen  the  curd  should  be 
dumped  from  the  coagulating  cans  upon  the  drain- 
ing cloths.  It  should  stand  until  the  whey  is 
markedly  acid  to  the  taste,  as  much  so  as  mildly 
ripened  cream,  and  until  the  hand  passed  down 
between  the  sides  of  the  can  and  the  curd  notes 
that  the  latter  is  firm,  with  a  peculiar  elastic  cush- 
iony feel.  The  amount  of  whey  that  gathers  on  the 
top  of  the  curd  is  not  a  safe  indication  of  the  time 
to  dump,  for  at  high  temperatures  a  large  amount 
of  whey  often  separates  while  it  is  still  sweet,  and 
in  case  of  gassy  fermentations  the  curd  floats  and 
the  whey  is  found  at  the  bottom.  If  the  cans  are 
dumped  before  sufficient  acid  has  developed,  it  will 
be  very  difficult  to  drain  the  curds,  the  flavor  will 
be  very  bad,  the  texture  pasty  and  slimy,  and  later, 
as  the  acid  develops,  an  additional  amount  of  whey 
will  separate;  making  a  leaky  cheese.  When  ready, 
the  cans  of  coagulated  milk  should  be  dumped  on 
draining  racks  15x24  inches,  with  slatted  bottoms 
covered  with  heavy,  closely -woven  cotton  sheeting. 
The  dumping  should  be  carefully  and  skilfully  done, 


276  Milk   and   Its   Products 

so  that  the  curd  slides  out  of  the  can  with  as  little 
breaking  as  possible  *  The  conditions  are  best  when 
the  mass  of  curd,  on  being  dumped,  retains  its  form 
and  breaks  with  a  clean  vitreous  fracture.  The 
time  required  for  drainage  may  range  from  two  to 
twenty -four  hours,  varying  with  the  temperature, 
amount  of  rennet  used,  amount  of  acidity  developed, 
and  other  unknown  factors.  When  dry  enough  to 
handle  easily,  the  cloths  are  folded  up  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  enclose  the  curd,  and  the  whole  is 
pressed  under  rather  heavy  pressure  till  the  proper 
consistency  is  secured.  When  taken  from  the  press 
the  cakes  of  curd  are  brought  to  a  uniform  con- 
sistency by  kneading  or  working,  or  they  may  be 
passed  through  an  ordinary  meat  chopper.  About 
1%  per  cent  of  salt  is  then  thoroughly  incorporated 
and  the  cheese  molded  into  the  desired  shape. 
The  molding  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty,  as  the 
particles  of  cheese  move  easily  on  themselves,  while 
they  tend  to  adhere  to  metal  or  wooden  surfaces. 
Large  factories  have  specially  constructed  machines 
for  molding  the  cheese.  On  a  small  scale,  the  most 
satisfactory  implement  is  a  smooth  tin  tube  of  the 
proper  diameter  and  long  enough  to  hold  two  or 
three  cheeses.  The  tube  is  filled  full  of  the  curd 
and  then  forced  out  of  one  end  with  a  smoothly 
fitting  piston,  after  which  the  cheeses  are  cut  apart 
with  a  thread  and.  neatly  wrapped  first  in  thin  parch- 
ment paper  and  then  in  tin  foil.  According  to  the 
quality  of  milk,  from  60  to  80  standard  cheeses  should 
be  made  from  100  pounds  of  milk. 


Philadelphia   or  Square    Creams  277 

Philadelphia  or  square  cream  cheese. — This  is  a 
soft  cheese  growing  in  popularity  in  proximity  to 
many  of  our  larger  markets.  It  resembles  the  Neuf- 
chatel,  but  is  made  of  cream  of  varying  degrees  of 
richness  and  is  put  up  in  a  different  form.  It  is 
molded  in  flat,  thin  cakes  3x4  inches,  in  a  flat  tin 
mold,  wrapped  in  parchment  paper,  and  packed  for 
shipment.  Its  manufacture  is  practically  the  same 
as  Neufchatel,  and,  in  fact,  there  is  more  or  less 
confusion  of  nomenclature  between  the  twtf,  as  well 
as  a  good  deal  of  variation  in  fat  content,  some 
brands  of  Neufchatel  having  a  higher  fat  content 
than  some  brands  of  square  cream,  and  vice  versa. 

Some  of  the  older  writers  describe  a  cream  cheese 
made  by  simply  draining  and  lightly  pressing  in 
square  blocks  a  thick  cream  obtained  by  setting  milk 
in  shallow  pans,  heating  over  water  till  the  cream 
"crinkles,",  and  setting  in  a  cool  place  for  twelve  to 
twenty -four  hours. 

Limburger. — The  Limburger  is  one  of  the  varieties 
of  cheese  whose  characteristics  are  due  to  specific 
fermentations  brought  into  the  cheese  during  the 
ripening  process.  These  fermentations  result  in  a 
well  known  putrefactive  odor  and  pungent  flavor. 
According  to  Monrad,*  the  manufacture  of  Limburger 
in  America  and  Europe  is  not  greatly  different.  Or- 
dinarily the  cheese  is  made  from  whole  milk,  but 
frequently  skimmed  or  partly  skimmed  milk  is  used. 
In  Europe  the  copper  kettle  is  commonly  employed ; 
in  America  both  the  kettle  and  the  ordinary  rectan- 

*  Cheese-making  in  Switzerland.    Winnetka,  111.,  1896. 


278  Milk   and   Its   Products 

gular  cheese  vat  are  used.  In  the  latter  case  the 
curd  is  made  in  much  the  same  way  as  for  ordinary 
cheese  up  to  the  point  when  the  whey  is  drawn  off. 
The  milk  is  set  at  a  rather  high  temperature  (92°  to 
100°  F.).  The  curd  is  broken  into  pieces  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg,  and  allowed  to  settle  to  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle.  It  is  then  scooped  out  and  put  in 
rectangular  molds  arranged  on  tables,  so  that  the 
whey  may  drain  off.  The  molds  are  carefully  turned 
till  the  whey  has  measurably  ceased  running,  and  the 
cheeses  will  maintain  their  form.  They  are  then 
placed  in  rows  on  a  flat  table  with  thin  pieces  of 
board  between  them,  and  subjected  to  light  pressure 
from  the  sides.  The  cheeses  are  turned  frequently  at 
first,  and  then  at  longer  intervals,  till  at  the  end  of 
thirty -six  to  forty -eight  hours  they  may  be  taken 
from  the  press.  They  are  then  salted  by  rubbing 
salt  on  the  ends  and  flat  sides  for  -three  or  four 
days.  After  the  first  salting  they  are  laid  on  the 
table  in  single  layers,  afterward  they  are  piled,  at 
first  two  deep,  then  three  or  four  deep,  so  that  the 
absorption  of  the  salt  may  be  promoted.  During 
salting  and  pressing  they  are  kept  at  a  uniform  tem- 
perature of  from  59°  to  63°  F.  They  are  then  cured 
in  a  cool  (60°  F.),  well -ventilated  cellar  nearly  satur- 
ated with  moisture,  with  careful  watching  and  much 
manipulation  and  turning.  With  the  ripening  they 
begin  to  soften.  The  curd,  at  first  hard,  takes  on 
the  characteristic  glassy,  greasy  appearance,  at  the 
same  time  that  the  rind  becomes  at  first  yellow,  then 
reddish  yellow.  The  softening  begins  on  the  outside 


Prepared    Cheese  279 

and  proceeds  toward  the  center,  and  the  cheeses  are 
considered  to  be  marketable  when  one -quarter  of  the 
cheese  has  taken  on  its  characteristic  texture. 

Imitation  Swiss  cheese. — A  considerable  amount  of 
cheese  closely  resembling  the  true  Emmenthaler  is 
made  in  America.  Its  main  distinctive  characteristic 
lies  in  its  peculiar  flavor,  and  in  the  appearance  of 
the  peculiar,  so-called  Swiss  holes  in  its  texture. 
Both  of  these  are  due  to  specific  fermentations, 
which  take  place  in  the  cheese  during  the  curing 
process.  (See  Emmenthaler  cheese,  page  289.) 

These  are  the  principal  varieties  of  cheese  that 
are  manufactured  to  any  large  extent  in  America. 
There  are,  however,  a  number  of  brands  of  cheese 
upon  the  market  that-  may  properly  be  classed  under 
the  general  name  of 

Prepared  cheese. — These  fancy  brands  are  in  gen- 
eral made  from  an  ordinary  cheese  of  good  quality, 
by  removing  the  rind  and  reducing  the  remainder 
to  a  homogeneous,  more  or  less  pulpy,  mass.  To  this 
is  added  a  certain  amount  of  additional  fat,  either  in 
the  shape  of  butter  or  other  fat,  and  some  flavoring 
matter  in  the  form  of  cayenne  pepper,  brandy,  or 
something  of  like  nature.  The  cheese  is  then  packed 
closely  in  fancy  glass  or  earthenware  packages,  sealed 
tightly,  and  marketed.  The  names  under  which  it  is 
sold  vary  with  the  manufacturer  and  with  the  recipe 
under  which  it  is  made.  Many  of  them  are  sold 
under  registered  trade -marks.  Some  of  the  better 
known  are  Club  House,  Meadow  Sweet,  Canadian 
Club,  etc. 


280  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Among  the  varieties  of  cheese  of  foreign  manu- 
facture, the  following  are  worthy  of  mention: 

English  cheeses. — The  various  dairy  localities  in 
England  produce  cheeses  bearing  their  distinctive 
geographical  names.  In  the.  main,  they  are  of  the 
cheddar  type,  and  differ  from  the  true  cheddar  only 
in  details  of  manufacture  and  in  slight  differences 
in  texture  and  flavor,  in  much  the  same  way  that 
the  American  home -trade  cheese  differs  from  the 
American  cheddar.  Of  the  English  cheeses,  the  best 
known  are  the  English  .Cheddar,  Cheshire  and  Stilton; 
others  worthy  of  mention  are  Leicestershire,  Lanca- 
shire, Derbyshire,  single  and  double  Gloucester,  Wens- 
leydale  and  Wiltshire. 

Stilton. — The  manufacture  of  Stilton  cheese  is  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  Leicestershire,  England.  Its 
manufacture  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  com- 
mon type  of  English  and  American  cheeses,  and  in 
many  respects  more  nearly  resembles  many  of  the 
Continental  varieties,  and  is  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  private  dairies.  It  is  made  from  sweet 
milk,  and  more  commonly  separate  curds  are  made 
from  both  night's  and  mornirig's  milk,  the  two  being 
brought  together  when  ready  for  the  hoops.  Stilton 
cheese  is  also  made  from  a  single  curd,  and  in  this 
case  the  night's  milk  is  held  till  morning  and 
mixed  with  the  morning's  milk.  It  is  commonly  sup- 
posed that  Stilton  cheese  is  made  from  milk  which 
has  been  reinforced  with  more  or  less  cream,  but 
this  is  not  the  case  at  the  present  time.  ;  in  fact, 
Stilton  cheese  of  good  quality  can  be  made  from 


Stilton 


281 


milk  not  particularly  rich  in  fat.  In  making  Stilton 
cheese  the  fresh  milk  is  put  into  a  circular  tin  vat  of 
sufficient  size  to  hold  the  milk  of  the  whole  dairy. 
The  milk  is  allowed 
to  cool  to  about  85° 
F.,  and  enough  ren- 
net is  added  to  cause 
a  firm  coagulation  in 
an  hour  or  an  hour 
and  a  quarter.  While 
the  milk  is  coagu- 
lating the  strainers 
are  arranged  in  .  3rd  Series' voL  x>) 
sinks,  as  follows:  The  sinks  must  be  large 
enough  to  hold  all  the  milk  that  is  made  at  one 
time.  Many  makers  prefer  earthenware,  though  on 
account  of  the  less  cost,  sinks  of  heavy  tin  are 
frequently  used.  They  are  about  six  inches  deep,  two 
to  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  of  any  convenient 
length,  and  are  simply  fitted  with  outlets  and  plugs. 
For  straining  the  curds  stout  linen  cloths  are  used. 
These  are  a  yard  square  and  are  arranged  in  the 
sinks  as  shown  in  Fig.  46,  and  are  supported  by 
sticks  laid  across  the  sink  in  such  a  way  that  the 
ends  of  each  cloth  may  be  gathered  up  without  dis- 
turbing those  next  to  it.  When  the  milk  is  firmly 
coagulated,  so  that  the  curd  is  somewhat  harder 
than  for  ordinary  cheddar  cheese  making,  the  plugs 
are  put  into  the  sink  and  the  curd  dipped  into 
the  strainer  with  the  curd  ladle  or  scoop  shown  in 
Fig.  47.  This  is  done  with  a  peculiar  deft  motion 


282 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


Fig.  47.     Stilton  curd  scoop. 


in   such  a  way   that   the   scoop   takes   up   a   thin  slab 

of   curd,  breaking   it    as   little  as  possible.     The  curd 

is  carefully  laid  in  the  strainer,  each  strainer  receiv- 
ing a  slice  in  turn 
until  all  the  contents 
of  the  vat  are  col- 
lected in  the  strainers. 
The  strainers  when  full 
should  contain  about 
three  to  four  gal- 
lons. After  dipping, 

the  whey  begins  to  separate  and  is  allowed  to   stand 

until  the  curds  are  well  covered,  when  the  plugs  are 

withdrawn    and   the    whey   allowed   to   run   off.      The 

ends  of  the  strainers  are  then  gathered   up,   brought 

closely   about   the   curd,   three   corners    being   held    in 

one      hand      and      the 

whole     tightened    with 

the    fourth,    as    shown 

in  Fig.  48;    care  being 

taken     in     doing     this 

that    the    curd     is    not 

broken.      The   pressure 

of  the  cloth  causes  the 

whey   to  separate  more 

freely,  and  at  intervals 

of   an   hour   the   cloths 

are  tightened  about  the 

curd  until  eight  or  ten 

hours    have    passed,   when   the   curd    should    be   firm 

and    solid,    and    the    whey    entirely    separated.      The 


Fig.  48.  Method  of  tightening  strainer 
cloths.  (Redrawn  from  Jour.  Royal 
Agr.  Soc.,  3rd  Series,  vol.  x.) 


Stilton 


283 


cloths  are  now  removed  from  the  curd  and  the  curd 

is     cut    into    pieces    about    four    inches    square,    and 

spread    in   the    bottom   of    the    sink    and    allowed    to 

remain    till    morning    or   until    it 

has    taken    on   a   good    degree    of 

acidity,    so    that    it    is    distinctly 

sour  to   the   taste.      If   the   room 

has    been    held   at   a   temperature 

between  60°  and  65°  F.,  this  will 

occur   when   the    night's    curd    is 

36    and    the    morning's    curd    24 

hours   old.      The   two    curds    are 

then   coarsely  broken  up 

with   the    fingers,    mixed 

together,     salted     (about 

one   ounce   to  three    and 

a  half  pounds  of  curd), 

and    put     in     the     hoop 

shown  in  Fig.  49.     The 

hoops    are    made    of    tin,    7    inches   in   diameter   and 

15   inches    high,    open   at    both   ends    and    perforated 

with  numerous   holes.      The   empty  hoop  is   set  upon 

a  thin  piece  of  board  9  inches  square,  covered  with  a 

piece    of     muslin.      The    curd    is    put    in    the    hoop 

loosely,  care ,  being   taken   that  the   larger   pieces   fall 

in  the  center,  and  the  smaller  ones  go  to  the  outside. 

The  hoops  when  full   are   set   aside   to   drain.      Each 

day   the   curd   is   turned   in   the   hoop,  a   fresh   board 

and  piece  of   cloth  being  used  each  time.     After  six 

to  eight  days  the  curd  next  the  hoop  begins  to  take 

on  a  fermentation,  which  gives  it  a  moist  appearance 


Fig.  49.    Hoop  for  Stilton  cheese. 


284  Milk   and   Its   Products 

and  an  aromatic  odor.  The  curd  also  shrinks  slightly 
so  that  the  hoop  slips  from  it  easily.  The  -cheeses 
are  then  ready  for  the  coating  process.  The  hoops 
are  removed  entirely  and  the  cheese  taken  into 
another  room,  where  the  temperature  is  maintained 
at  from  55°  to  60°  F.,  and  the  air  is  kept  nearly 
saturated  with  moisture.  The  cheeses  are  scraped 
with  a  dull  knife,  the  cracks  being  filled  up  with 
the  material  scraped  from  the  more  prominent  places. 
After  the  scraping,  a  bandage  is  pinned  firmly  to 
the  cheese.  The  scraping  is  continued  from  day 
to  day  for  two  or  three  days,  clean  bandages  being 
put  on  each  time  until  the  coat  begins  to  appear. 
This  is  seen  in  the  formation  of  a  white  mold,  and 
also  in  the  appearance  of  dry  patches  upon  the  ban- 
dage. The  bandages  are  now  removed  from  the 
cheese,  and  it  remains  in  the  coating -room  for  about 
two  weeks,  being  turned  every  day,  and  resting  on 
a  board  covered  with  cloth.  When  the  coat  has 
fully  formed,  the  surface  of  the  cheese  is  a  light 
drab,  of  a  wrinkled  appearance,  and  is  then  ready 
for  the  curing -room.  The  curing -room  is  kept  at 
the  same  or  a  little  higher  temperature  than  the 
coating -room,  and  the  atmosphere  may  be  somewhat 
drier,  though  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  too 
dry.  Curing  goes  on  slowly  for  two  or  three 
months,  after  which  the  cheese  may  be  removed  to 
a  cool  cellar  and  will  continue  to  improve  for  some 
time  longer.  During  the  curing  process  the  mold 
begins  to  grow  in  the  interior  of  the  cheese,  and 
when  fully  ripe  the  cheese  should  be  evenly  mottled 


Stilton  285 

and  veined  with  blue  mold  through  its  whole  sub- 
stance. A  well-made  and  "well -cured  Stilton  cheese 
has  a  rough,  wrinkled,  drab  exterior.  The  cheese 


Fig.  50.  Stilton  cheese,  from  «  Stilton  Cheese  Making,"  by  J.  Marshall  Dugdale, 
Jour.  Royal  Agr.  Soc.,  3rd  Series,  vol.  x.,  through  the  courtesy  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  EnglancL 

itself  is  of  a  soft,  uniform  texture,  pale -colored,  and 
evenly  streaked  with  mold.  The  flavor  is  mild  and 
largely  characteristic  of  the  mold.  The  appearance 
of  the  cheese  is  well  shown  in  the  cut,  Fig.  50. 


286  Milk   and  Its   Products 

Cheshire. —  Cheshire  is  a  cheese  of  the  ordinary 
type,  soft  in  texture  and  rather  high  in  flavor.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  county  in  England  where 
it  is  most  largely  made,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  English  cheeses.  Cheshire  cheese  is 
made  from  whole  milk,  night's  and  morning's  milk 
mixed  together  and  of  some  degree  of  ripeness.  In 
many  dairies  the  night's  milk  is  skimmed  in  the 
morning  before  the  morning's  milk  is  added  to  it, 
and  the  cream  so  obtained  reserved  to  be  added  to 
the  cream  of  the  following  day  at  the  same  time 
that  the  cream  removed  the  day  before  is  added  to 
the  milk  from  which  the  cream  is  taken.  This  is 
done  in  order  to  secure  a  certain  degree  of  ripe- 
ness. The  milk  is  set  at  about  85°  F.,  with  enough 
rennet  to  cause  a  rather  firm  coagulation  in  about 
an  hour.  It  is  then  cut  with  a  perpendicular  knife 
lengthwise  of  the  vat,  and  allowed  to  stand  ten 
minutes  or  until  a  considerable  amount  of  whey  is 
separated,  and  is  then  cut  crosswise  and  a  second 
time  lengthwise.  It  is  not  ordinarily  cut  with  the 
horizontal  knife  at  all.  After  cutting,  it  is  care- 
fully stirred  with  the  hand  for  about  an  hour,  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  which  time  heat  is  applied 
to  bring  the  contents  of  the  vat  back  again  to 
85°  F.  When  the  curd  is  firm  enough  so  that  a 
piece  thrown  15  to  18  inches  in  the  air  and  caught 
in  the  hand  does  not  break  it  is  allowed  to  settle, 
usually  for  about  half  an  hour,  but  before  any  acid 
develops  in  the  whey  the  curd  is  carefully  pushed 
to  one  end  of  the  vat  and  the  whey  drawn  off. 


Cheshire  287 

The  curd  then  mats  and  is  cut  and  piled  much  as 
in  the  Cheddar  system,  except  that  the  pieces  are 
cut  smaller  and  the  cutting  is  renewed  each  time 
the  curd  is  turned,  and  the  piling  is  done  in  such 
a  way  that  the  curd  does  not  flatten  out.  The 
acidity  and  moisture  of  the  curd  is  regulated  dur- 
ing this  cutting  and  piling  process.  If  the  curd 
is  too  wet,  it  is  turned  and  piled  frequently.  If  it 
is  too  acid  and  dry  it  is  allowed  to  lie  longer  and 
not  turned  so  often.  When  some  acid  is  developed, 
so  that  the  curd  takes  on  a  glistening  appearance 
and  begins  to  grow  slightly  fibrous,  it  is  finely 
ground  in  a  peg  mill,  salted  and  put  in  the  hoops 
with  strainer  cloth  about  it  but  not  under  pressure. 
At  night  it  is  turned  and  returned  to  the  hoops. 
The  next  morning  it  is  again  turned  and  then  put 
in  the  press  with  very  slight  pressure.  Each  suc- 
ceeding day  the  turning  is  continued  and  the  pres- 
sure slightly  increased  until  it  has  been  pressed  for 
five  days  in  all.  It  is  then  taken  from  the  press 
and  allowed  to  stand  one  day  in  the  hoops  with- 
out pressure,  after  which  it  is  taken  out  and  a 
bandage  pasted  on  with  flour  paste.  It  is  allowed 
to  stand  three  days  in  the  press-room,  and  then 
put  in  the  curing -room  at  a  temperature  not  above 
65°,  and  cured  for  three  or  four  weeks.  The 
cheese  should  all  be  of  the  same  height,  and  to 
bring  this  about  hoops  of  varying  diameter  are  used 
so  that  the  variation  in  milk  from  day  to  day  will 
make  no  difference  in  the  height  of  the  cheese.  If 
a  cheese  is  too  high  after  the  first  or  second  day 


288  Milk   and  Its   Products 

in  the  press  it  is  put  in  a  hoop  of  larger  diameter 
and  vice  versa  When  the  cheese  is  put  in  the  cur- 
ing-room, the  growth  of  a  white  mold  on  the  ends  is 
encouraged  by  laying  on  the  upper  end  of  the  cheese 
a  plate  or  round  piece  of  slate.  The  cheeses  are 
kept  on  straw  in  the  curing -room,  and  when  ready 
for  market  the  ends  of  the  cheese,  except  where  the 
plate  has  lain,  are  cleaned  and  polished,  and  the 
marks  of  the  straw  show  in  the  white  mold  in  the 
center.  Cheshire  cheese  is  usually  colored.  When 
of  good  quality  it  is  of  a  soft  and  somewhat  gran- 
alar  texture,  dissolving  readily  on  the  tongue,  and 
with  a  pronounced  and  rather  sharp  cheese  flavor. 

Lancashire. —  Lancashire  cheese  is  very  similar  to 
Cheshire,  though  it  is  made  somewhat  softer  and  the 
flavor  is  more  pronounced.  No  heat  is  used  to  aid 
in  the  separation  of  the  whey,  and  ordinarily,  when 
ready  for  the  press,  the  curd  is  divided  into  two 
portions,  one  of  which  is  mixed  with  the  curd 
retained  from  the  preceding  day  and  pressed,  and 
the  other  kept  to  be  mixed  with  the  curd  made  on 
the  following  day. 

Derbyshire  and  Leicestershire. —  These  cheeses  are 
made  by  modifications  of  the  Cheddar  process.  They 
are  intended  to  produce  a  somewhat  softer  cheese  to 
ripen  in  a  shorter  time.  Both  are  pressed  in  flat 
shapes,  not  over  six  inches  in  height  and  about  six- 
teen inches  in  diameter.  The  Derbyshire  is  white, 
the  Leicestershire  highly  colored.  Both  should  be 
covered  with  dark  mold  when  ready  for  the  market. 
They  bear  the  same  relation  to  English  Cheddar 


Wensleydale   and    Gorgonzola  289 

cheese  that  the  soft  varieties  of  of  home -trade  cheese 
do  to  American  export  Cheddars. 

Wensleydale. —  Wensleydale  cheese  is  made  in  cer- 
tain districts  in  Yorkshire,  England.  It  occupies  an 
intermediate  position  between  the  Stilton  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  ordinary  hard  cheese  on  the  other.  In 
texture  and  flavor,  and  in  the  characteristic  veins 
of  blue  mold  it  quite  closely  resembles  the  Stilton, 
but  it  is  made  after  a  process  somewhat  resembling 
the  ordinary  Derby  or  Leicestershire  or  American 
home -trade  processes,  and  is  pressed  in  a  bandage 
in  an  ordinary  press.  It  is  cured  at  a  temperature 
of  about  60°  F.,  care  being  taken  that  the  growth  of 
the  mold  is  facilitated  even  to  the  extent  of  burrow- 
ing the  cheese  with  skewers  if  the  mold  does  not 
grow  with  sufficient  .rapidity. 

Gorgonzola. —  Gorgonzola  is  an  Italian  blue-molded 
cheese  closely  resembling  Stilton  in  texture,  though 
it  is  usually  of  inferior  flavor.  Considerable  quan- 
tities of  Gorgonzola  are  imported  into  this  country, 
but  their  quality  is  not  at  all  uniform  and  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture,  resembling  that  given  for  Stil- 
ton in  the  main,  is  not  systematically  carried  out 
by  the  peasants  in  the  north  of  Italy,  where  it  is 
made. 

Emmenthaler,  Gruyere,  Swiss  or  Schweitzer.— The 
cheese  made  in  the  mountains  of  Switzerland  has  a 
history  reaching  back  to  the  seventeenth  century,* 
and  many  of  the  old  customs  are  still  used ;  but,  as 


*Monrad,  Cheese  making  in  Switzerland.    Winnetka,  HI.,  1896. 
S 


290  Milk   and   Its   Products 

might  be  expected,  the  various  localities  have  devel- 
oped many  varieties  of  this  general  type,  in  the  same 
way  that  the  different  forms  of  cheddar  and  allied 
cheese  have  come  to  differ  from  one  another.  It  ib 
generally  considered  that  the  cheese  known  as  Em- 
menthaler  is  typical  of  the  whole  group  of  Swiss 
cheeses.  The  Emmen thaler  cheese  is  made  in  a 
large  copper  kettle  instead  of  a  vat,  and  ordinarily  the 
curd  made  in  one  vessel  is  pressed  as  a  single 
cheese.  After  the  curd  has  been  coagulated  with  ren- 
net, it 'is  broken  up  in  various  ways  into  small  pieces 
as  nearly  uniform  in  size  as  possible,  and  then  heated, 
with  careful  stirring  and  attention,  up  to  135°  or 
140°  F.  After  heating,  the  curd  is  allowed  to  sink 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  a  solid  mass,  and 
while  in  this  condition  the  bandage  is  slipped  around 
it  and  the  whole  mass  of  curd  conveyed  to  the 
hoops,  where  it  is  pressed.  In  the  subsequent  curing 
the  curd  is  usually  salted  from  the  outside  of  the 
cheese  as  it  is  curing,  and  during  the  curing  pro- 
cess certain  fermentations  go  on  which  produce  large 
holes  in  the  cheese.  These  holes  in  perfect  cheese 
should  be  uniform  in  size  and  at  equal  distances  from 
one  another.  The  casein  itself  breaks  down  into  a 
cheese  of  solid,  uniform  texture  and  characteristic  fla- 
vor. It  has  been  asserted  that  the  characteristic  fla- 
vors of  the  Swiss  cheese  are  due  to  the  character  of 
the  Alpine  pastures  upon  which  the  cows  feed,  but  it 
is  altogether  likely  that  the  curing  fermentations  have 
as  much  or  more  to  do  with  developing  these  flavors, 
Edam. — The  round  Dutch  cheeses,  colored  red, 


Edam  291 

that  are  common  in  all  markets  take  their  name 
from  Edam,  a  small  town  in  North  Holland,  though 
the  cheeses  made  in  the  whole  of  North  Holland  are 
practically  of  this  variety.  The  cheeses  are  made 
almost  wholly  in  private  dairies,  though  there  are  a 
few  factories  in  which  the  milk  of  several  farmers  is 
pooled  together.  The  cheeses  are  made  from  partly 
skimmed  milk ;  ordinarily  the  milk  of  the  evening 
is  put  at  once  into  the  cheese  making  tub,  and  in 
the  morning  the  cream  that  has  risen  is  removed 
from  it  for  making  butter.  The  fresh  morning's 
milk  is  added  and  the  whole  set  immediately  at  a 
temperature  of  85°  F.,  with  enough  rennet  to  coagu- 
late it  in  about  40  minutes  somewhat  softer  than  for 
ordinary  cheese  making.  When  the  coagulation  is 
sufficiently  advanced  the  curd  is  broken  with  a  wire 
curd  breaker,  the  bars  of  which  are  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  apart.  The  breaking  is  done  at 
first  gently  into  large  pieces  and  afterward  more 
vigorously,  a  constant  agitation  being  kept  up  by  the 
breaker  which  results  in  breaking  the  curd  into  finer 
and  finer  pieces.  After  the  whey  begins  to  separate 
a  portion  is  drawn  off  and  heated  upon  a  stove,  the 
agitation  meanwhile  of  the  curd  and  the  remaining 
whey  being  constantly  kept  up.  When  the  whey  is 
sufficiently  warm  so  that  when  added  to  the  whole 
mass  it  will  bring  the  contents  of  tbe  tub  up  to  85°  F., 
the  heated  whey  is  added  and  the  stirring  with  the 
breaker  kept  up  for  a  full  hour,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  particles  of  curd  should  be  about  the  size  of 
kernels  of  wheat,  and  firm  and  hard,  but  still  entirely 


292  MM   and  Its   Products 

sweet-  The  curd  is  then  allowed  to  settle  on  the 
bottom  of  the  tub.  When  it  is  sufficiently  matted  so 
that  it  will  hang  together  it  is  carefully  turned  over 
and  doubled  up  at  one  side  of  the  tub,  which  is 
slightly  elevated  for  the  purpose.  The  whey  is  then 
dipped  off  and  the  curd  made  as  firm  as  possible  in 
the  tub  by  pressure  with  a  piece  of  board  and  an  iron 
weight.  When  all  the  whey  has  been  removed  that 
will  run  off  readily,  the  curd  is  broken  up  with  the 

hands   and    packed   in    the 
molds  shown  in  Fig.  51. 

It  is  made  as  firm  as 
possible  in  the  mold  by 
pressure  with  the  hand 
until  it  will  maintain  its 
shape.  It  is  then  removed 
from  the  mold,  neatly 

Fig.  51.    Mold  for  Edam  cheese.  Wrapped      in     COttOU     cloths 

and  replaced.     The  covers 

are  put  on  and  the  molds  put  in  the  press  for  three 
hours.  When  removed  from  the  press  the  cheese 
should  be  round  or  nearly  round  in  shape.  They  are 
put  on  cup -shaped  supports  and  salted  by  thoroughly 
rubbing  the  outside  with  salt.  They  are  then  set 
aside,  covered  with  salt,  turned  and  rubbed  frequently 
for  three  or  four  days.  (Sometimes  the  salt  is  added 
by  immersion  in  saturated  brine.)  They  are  kept  in 
the  salt  as  long  as  any  whey  is  drawn  out  and  are 
then  put  on  shelves  in  the  curing -rooms  still  in  the 
cup -shaped  support  to  help  maintain  their  form.  The 
curing -rooms  are  kept  at  ordinary  temperatures.  In 


Edam 


293 


many  places  they  are  the  cow  stables  that  are  vacant 
for  the  summer.  The  temperature  will  seldom  rise 
higher  than  65°  F.  After  about  three  or  four  weeks 
they  became  hard  and  firm  and  covered  with  a  white 
mold.  They  are  then  taken  down,  thoroughly  washed 


Fig.  52.    The  Market  Square,  Alkmaar,  Holland.     From  a  photograph 
by  the  author,  May  21,  1897. 

in  whey,  all  the  mold  scrubbed  off,  dried  and  greased 
with  linseed  oil,  when  they  are.  ready  for  the  market. 
The  merchants  purchase  them  in  large  numbers  at  the 
weekly  markets  in  the  different  villages.  A  typical 
market  scene  is  shown  in  the  cut  (Fig.  52).  When 
taken  to  the  warehouses  they  are  colored  red,  wrapped 
in  tin  foil  and  packed  for  transportation.  The  curing 


294  Milk   and   Its   Products 

process  is  not  completed  at  the  time  the  cheese  is 
marketed.  An  Edam  cheese  at  three  or  four  weeks 
old  is  of  a  tough,  elastic  texture  and  scarce  any 
flavor.  Six  or  eight  months  or  more  are  required  to 
break  down  the  casein  and  develop  the  flavor  as  it  is 
found  in  the  perfect  Edam  cheese,  and  this  ordinarily 
takes  place  while  the  cheeses  are  in  the  warehouse  or 
in  course  of  exportation. 

Gouda. — Gouda  cheeses  are  made  in  South  Holland 
by  a  process  very  similar  to  the  manufacture  of 
Edam.  The  whey  is  not  so  completely  separated, 
and  the  resulting  cheese  is  therefore  softer.  It  is 
pressed  in  molds  of  a  flat,  oval  shape  and  about 
ten  or  twelve  pounds  weight,  and  is  cured  faster 
than  Edam,  so  that  at  six  weeks  to  two  months 
old  it  is  a  cheese  similar  in  flavor  and  texture  to 
a  well  made  Cheddar,  although  somewhat  drier. 

Roquefort. — This  is  a  soft  or  semi -soft  cheese, 
made  in  France.  In  some  respects  it  is  the  most  fa- 
mous of  all  varieties  of  cheese.  It  is  sometimes  made 
from  goats7  as  well  as  cows'  milk,  and  it  has  peculiar 
characteristics  imparted  by  specific  fermentations  that 
are  brought  about  in  the  curing  process.  The  curing 
is  done  in  caves  in  limestone  rock,  where  the  air  is 
uniform  in  temperature,  and  in  order  to  bring  about 
the  desired  fermentations  the  germs  are  added  to  the 
curd  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  These  germs 
are  often  cultivated  upon  bread  or  similar  substance, 
and  this,  crumbled  up,  is  mingled  with  the  curd 
in  order  to  insure  the  proper  fermentation  in  the 
cheese.  Roquefort  cheese,  when  well  made  and 


Brie   and    Camembert  295 

cured,  is  of  a  rather  soft  texture,  and  the  whole 
mass  is  permeated  with  the  molds,  imparting  a 
characteristic  flavor  to  the  cheese. 

Brie. — Another  soft  French  cheese.  The  milk  is 
put  into  small,  circular  vessels  and  the  rennet  added. 
The  curd  is  allowed  to  remain  until  it  has  become 
sufficiently  firm  to  be  removed  from  the  whey  in  one 
piece.  It  is  then  carefully  taken  up  *and  put  in 
such  a  position  that  the  whey  may  drain  from  it. 
It  is  turned  frequently  and  carefully  until  sufficient 
whey  has  drained  away  so  that  the  cheeses  will 
maintain  their  form.  They  are  then  lightly  salted 
and  put  away  to  cure.  During  the  curing  process 
molds  develop  on  the  outside,  but  the  fermenta- 
tions that  go  on  upon  the  inside  of  the  cheese 
result  in  the  breaking  down  of  the  casein  into  a 
creamy  mass  of  a  strong,  piquant  flavor.  The  molds 
upon  the  outside  give  to  the  cheese  a  strong  odor 
of  decomposition. 

In  very  many  cases,  Brie  cneese  is  put  upon  the 
market  in  a  very  much  more  immature  form,  so  that 
it  has  a  firm,  though  somewhat  soft  texture.  If 
allowed  to  become  fully  ripe,  though,  it  breaks  down 
into  a  semi -liquid  mass  similar  to  Camembert. 

Camembert. — Camembert  cheese  is  a  soft  cheese 
of  French  manufacture  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter 
and  %  to  %  inches  thick.  When  fully  ripe,  the 
cheese  is  coated  with  a  heavy  growth  of  red  or 
reddish  brown  mold,  and  the  interior  breaks  down 
into  a  soft,  plastic  semi-liquid  mass,  of  pungent  odor 
and  piquant  flavor.  In  the  manufacture  of  Camem- 


296  Milk   and  Its   Products 

bert  cheese  the  rennet  is  added  at  a  rather  low  tem- 
perature and  in  small  quantity,  so  that  eight  to  ten 
hours  are  required  before  the  curd  is  firm  enough 
for  the  further  treatment.  In  some  cases  a  culture 
of  the  mold  from  an  old  cheese  is  added  to  the  milk 
before  the  rennet,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  growth 
of  the  mold  during  the  ripening  process.  When  the 
milk  is  coagulated  into  rather  a  firm  curd, 
the  curd  and  whey  is  ladled  into  the  mold 
shown  in  the  cut,  Fig.  53,  which  is  placed 
upon  a  straw  mat  arranged  on  a  table  so 
that  the  whey  may  drain  off.  In 
ladling  the  curd  into  the  mold 
care  is  taken  that  each  ladleful 
is  deposited  with  as  little  break- 
age of  the  curd  as  possible,  and 
particularly  that  the 
mold,  when  full,  is 
covered  at  the  top 
with  but  a  single  slice 
of  the  curd.  The  curds  Fig- 58  Ladle  and  mold  for  Camembert 

.  cheese. 

are  allowed  to  remain 

in  the  molds  until  enough  whey  has  escaped  so  that 
the  cheeses  may  be  turned  without  breaking  the  curd. 
They  are  then  carefully  turned  and  put  upon  fresh 
mats,  at  intervals  of  twelve  hours,  when  in  the 
course  of  three  or  four  days  the  cheese  will  be 
sufficiently  firm  so  that  the  molds  may  be  removed. 
After  the  molds  are  removed,  turning  is  continued 
until  the  mold  begins  to  appear  on  the  surface. 
The  cheeses  are  then  put  in  a  damp  curing -room,  at  a 


and   Pont   L'Evdque 


297 


low  temperature — 55°  to  60° — for  the  remainder  of  the 

ripening  process,  which  requires  from  four  to  six  weeks. 

/ 

D'Isigny. —  D'Isigny  cheese  is  similar  to  Camem- 
bert  and  Brie,  and  intermediate  in  size  between 
them ;  in  fact,  D'Isigny  so  closely  resembles  Brie 
that  they  are  often  indistinguishable,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  D'Isigny  is  little  more  than  a  trade 
name  for  a  smaller  form  of  Brie. 

Pont  L'Eveque. — Pont  L'Eveque  is  a  soft  French 
cheese  of  rather  firmer  consistency  than  Cainembert. 
The  milk  is  set  at  the  usual  temperature,  and  when 
the  curd  is  firm  enough  to  handle,  it  is  gently  cut 
into  rather  large  cubes,  which  are  carefully  placed 
upon  a  straw  mat.  As  the  whey  begins  to  separate 
and  run  off  and  the  curd  becomes  firmer,  the  ends  of 
the  mat  are  brought  together  in  such  a  way  that  a 
slight  pressure  is  brought  upon  the  curd.  This  is 
continued  until  the  curd  is  firm  enough  so  that  it 
can  be  placed  in  tin  molds  like 
that  shown  in  the  cut,  Fig.  54. 
The  molds  are  filled  and  placed 
upon  a  straw  mat.  The  molds 
are  turned  once  or  twice  a  day 
until  the  cheese  is  firm  enough 
so  that  the  mold  may  be  re- 
moved. Mold  begins  to  appear 
upon  the  cheese,  which  is  kept 
at  a  temperature  a  little  above 
60°.  When  the  cheeses  are  well  molded  they  are 
removed  to  a  damp  room  of  a  temperature  from 
55°  to  58°.  When  the  curing  process  is  com- 


Fig.  54.     Mold  for 
Pont  L'Eveque  cheese. 


298  Milk   and   Its   Products 

plete,  the  cheeses  are  of  a  soft  consistency  similar  to 
that  of  an  unripe  Brie,  but  with  a  characteristic,  well 
ripened  flavor  fully  developed. 

Port  du  Salut  is  one  of  the  firmest  French 
cheeses,  and  when  well  made  is  of  a  texture  similar 
to  the  best  type  of  American  home -trade  cheese, 
with  a  pleasant,  nutty  flavor.  The  milk  is  set  at 
a  rather  high  temperature  and  enough  rennet  added 
to  bring  firm  coagulation  in  thirty  minutes.  The 
curd  is  then  cut  and,  heated  to  104°  and  allowed 

to  remain  in  the  whey 
until  it  takes  on  a  pe- 
culiar rubber -like  con- 
sistency. It  is  then  put 
in  the  hoop  shown  in 
the  cut,  Fig.  55,  which 
is  lined  with  a  strainer 

Fig.  55.    Hoop  for  Port  du  Salut  cheese. 

cloth   and   subjected   to 

slight  pressure.  When  taken  from  the  press  it  is 
slowly  ripened  at  a  low  temperature. 

Parmesan.  —  A  very  hard  Italian  cheese  made 
from  milk  with  very  little  fat,  and  from  which  a 
large  part  of  the  water  has  been  expelled.  In  curing 
it  takes  on  a  rather  sharp  flavor,  and  naturally  it 
can  be  kept  in  almost  any  climate  for  almost  any 
length  of  time.  It  is  so  hard  that  it  is  ordinarily 
grated  before  being  used,  and  is  almost  wholly 
used  to  add  piquancy  to  soups,  sauces,  and  the 
like. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

ICE   CREAM 

Relation  to  dairy  practice. — The  nutritive  value  of 
ice  cream,  together  with  its  extreme  paLttableness, 
makes  it  one  of  the  leading  foods  of  today.  Thus 
the  immense  demand  has  forced  it,  in  a  large  measure, 
from  the  realm  of  the  housewife  to  the  commercial 
channels  of  trade.  As  it  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  prod- 
uct of  milk,  the  business  of  making  it  has  fallen  in 
many  cases  upon  the  dairyman.  The  indications  for 
the  future  seem  to  demand  a  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  practice  underlying  the  manufacture  of  ice 
cream  for  every  one  interested  in  dairy  products. 
Although  some  believe  ice  cream  to  be  a  direct  de- 
scendant of  the  sherbet  of  the  Orient,  and  hence  of 
ancient  origin,  its  development  has  been  rather  slow 
until  recently.  Catharine  de  Medici  is  said  to  have 
had  frozen  ices  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Charles  IT  was  served  with  frozen  milk  at  a 
banquet  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  eighteenth 
century,  ice  cream  was  made  to  some  extent  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  France  and  the  United  States.  The 
first  advertisement  of  ice  cream  appeared  in  a  New 
York  newspaper  called  "The  Post  Boy,"  June  8,  1786, 
and  read  as  follows:  "Ladies  and  Gentlemen  may  be 

(299) 


300 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


supplied  with  Ice  Cream  every  day  at  the  City  Tavern, 
by  their  humble  servant,  Joseph  Crowe." 

The  wholesale  ice  cream  business  was  originated  in 
the  nineteenth  century  by  Jacob  Fussel,  but  it  reached 
its  maximum  development  in  the  twentieth  century. 
The  word  "ice  cream,"  which  corresponds  to  the  Euro- 
pean word  "ices,"  is  rather  a  generic  term,  and  may 
be  used  to  apply  to  any  one  of  a  large  class  of  frozen 
delicacies. 

Classification. — Ice  creams  in  America  are  divided 
into  two  large  classes. 

I.  Philadelphia,  or   plain  cream,  which   consists   of 
pure  cream,  sugar  and  flavoring  matter. 

II.  Neapolitan,  which  has,  in  addition  to  the  cream 
and  sugar,  beaten  eggs,  making  it,  in  reality,  a  frozen 
custard. 

Janet  McKenzie  Hill  makes  the  following  classi- 
fication : 


Ices< 


Cream  ices 


Water  ices   - 


Frozen  with  stirring 

^Frozen  without  stirring 

Sherbet. 
Granite. 
Frappe. 
^Punch. 


(Philadelphia. 
^Neapolitan. 
rParfait. 
Biscuit. 
^Mousse. 


Classification   of  Ice   Cream  301 

Another    classification    made   by    Mortensen  *    is   as 
follows : 

I.  Plain  ice  creams.  IX.  Lactos. 

II.  Nut  ice  creams.  X.  Ices. 

III.  Fruit  ice  creams.  1.   Sherbets. 

IV.  Bisque  ice  creams.  2.   Milk  sherbets. 
V.  Parfaits.  3.   Frappe"s. 

VI.    Mousses.  4.   Punches. 

VII.   Puddings.  5.  Souffles. 

VIII.  Aufaits. 

The  definitions  and  descriptions  of  the  above  classi- 
fication are  given  as  follows  by  Mortensen: 

Plain  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from 
cream  and  sugar,  with  or  without  a  natural  flavoring. 

Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from 
cream  and  sugar  and  non- rancid  nuts. 

Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from 
cream,  sugar,  and  sound,  clean,  mature  fruits. 

Bisque  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from 
cream,  sugar,  and  bread  products,  marshmallows  or 
other  confections,  with  or  without  natural  flavoring. 

Parfait  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream, 
sugar  and  egg  yolks,  with  or  without  nuts  or  fruits 
and  other  natural  flavoring. 

Mousse  is  a  frozen  whipped  cream  to  which  sugar 
and  natural  flavoring  have  been  added. 

Pudding  is  a  product  from  cream  or  milk,  with 
sugar,  eggs,  nuts  and  fruits,  highly  flavored. 

Aufait  is  a  brick  cream,  consisting  of  layers  of  one  or 
more  kinds  of  cream,  with  solid  layers  of  frozen  fruits. 

*Iowa  State  College,  Bulletin  123,  page  357. 


302  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Lacto  is  a  product  manufactured  from  skimmed  or 
whole  sour  milk,  eggs  and  sugar,  with  or  without 
natural  flavoring. 

Ices  are  frozen  products  made  from  water,  or  sweet 
skimmed  or  whole  milk,  and  sugar,  with  or  without 
eggs,  fruit  juices,  or  other  natural  flavoring. 

A  sherbert  is  an  ice  made  from  water,  sugar,  egg- 
albumen,  and  natural  flavoring,  and  frozen  to  the 
consistency  of  ice  cream. 

Milk  sherbert  is  an  ice  made  from  sweet  skimmed 
or  whole  milk,  with  egg -albumen,  sugar,  and  natural 
flavoring,  frozen  to  the  consistency  of  ice  cream. 

Frappe  is  an  ice  consisting  of  water,  sugar,  and 
natural  flavoring,  and  frozen  to  a  soft,  semi -frozen 
consistency. 

Punch  is  a  sherbet  flavored  with  liquors,  or  highly 
flavored  with  fruit  juices  and  spice. 

Souffle  is  an  ice  made  from  water,  eggs,  sugar  and 
flavoring  material.  It  differs  from  sherbets  mainly  in 
that  it  contains  the  whole  egg. 

As  a  product  can  be  no  better  than  the  materials 
which  enter  into  its  composition,  it  behooves  the  ice 
cream  maker  to  use  care  and  discretion  in  the  selec- 
tion of  ingredients. 

Quality  of  cream. — Cream  being  the  main  constitu- 
ent, its  quality  has  a  marked  effect  upon  the  finished 
product.  The  fat  content  of  the  cream  influences  the 
flavor  in  proportion  to  the  percentage.  This  is  recog- 
nized as  such  an  important  factor  that  the  federal  and 
some  state  governments  are  requiring  that  all  ice  cream 
offered  for  sale  contain  a  certain  percentage  of  fat. 


Quality  of  Cream  303 

It  is  a  self-evident  fact  that  the  flavor  of  the  raw 
cream  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  ice 
cream  making.  It  should  be  free  from  all  "cowy"  or 
weedy  flavors,  and  from  all  old,  rancid,  or  metallic 
flavors,  which  indicate  unclean  dairying.  Although 
the  ice  cream  maker  is  not  always  directly  responsible 
for  the  cream  before  it  reaches  him,  he  is  responsible 
for  the  marketable  product;  so  a  close  supervision  of 
the  entire  production  of  the  cream  is  worth  while. 
Granted  that  the  cream  is  clean  and  sweet,  it  is 
known  that  the  viscosity  increases  with  age,  particu- 
larly if  the  cream  is  held  at  a  low  temperature.  This 
viscosity  permits  an  increase  in  yield  because  of  a 
greater  swell  in  freezing,  while  the  extreme  cold 
apparently  hardens  the  fat  and  gives  to  the  frozen 
product  a  better  body. 

Whether  cream  should  be  heated  or  pasteurized  de- 
pends on  the  individual.  The  various  chefs  and  con- 
noisseurs differ.  Professor  Mortensen  recommends 
pasteurization  of  cream  at  140°  to  145°,  and  holding 
it  in  a  retarder  for  thirty  minutes;  then  cooling  it 
rapidly  and  holding  it  at  a  temperature  near  freezing 
for  about  forty- eight  hours.  Some  people  dislike  ice 
cream  made  from  uncooked  cream,  claiming  that  it 
has  a  raw  flavor  and  less  body. 

The  use  of  homogenized  milk  or  cream,  that  is,  one 
which  has  been  made  homogeneous  throughout  by  sub- 
jecting it,  in  an  apparatus  adapted  for  that  purpose, 
to  a  pressure  of  from  3,000  to  5,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  is  said  to  enable  the  ice  cream  maker  to 
use  a  cream  containing  from  16  to  17  per  cent  fat, 


304  Milk   and   Its   Products 

in  which  the  resulting  product  will  have  a  body  and 
texture  equal  to  that  resulting  from  the  use  of  a  20 
to  25  per  cent  cream. 

Sugar. — The  kind  and  amount  of  sugar  is  left 
usually  to  the  taste  of  the  maker  or  the  demand  of 
the  trade.  Ordinarily  granulated  sugar  is  used, 
though  some  prefer  XXXX  or  some  of  the  finer  grades. 
Other  manufacturers  believe  that  brown  sugar  gives  a 
delicate  flavor  which  is  desirable. 

Whether  the  sugar  should  be  added  in  the  form  of 
syrup  is  another  question  which  is  open.  Experience 
has  shown  that  where  syrup  is  used  the  resulting  prod- 
uct is  perhaps  of  finer  grain  or  body,  but  that  the 
time  for  freezing  is  longer,  and  it  is  also  a  little  more 
difficult  to  keep  the  cream  frozen  and  in  good  condi- 
tion. Not  all  makers  may  find  that  this  is  so. 

'Flavors. — The  flavoring  matter  may  be  obtained  in 
various  ways;  the  many  kinds  of  vanilla  extract,  both 
natural  and  synthetic,  on  the  market  give  the  manu- 
facturer a  wide  range  for  choice.  Some  believe  that 
the  best  results  are  obtained  by  extracting  the  vanilla 
from  the  beans  themselves  with  alcohol.  The  other 
flavors,  such  as  caramel,  chocolate,  maple,  and  the  va- 
rious fruits,  may  be  procured  already  prepared  from 
some  commercial  concern,  or  perhaps  as  good,  if  not 
better  quality,  may  be  made  by  the  maker  himself. 
Vanilla  has  that  peculiar  quality  which  enables  it  to 
combine  with  other  flavors  in  such  a  way  that  the 
result  is  particularly  pleasing.  Thus,  in  caramel  and 
chocolate  creams,  some  vanilla  is  usually  used.  Most 
recipes  advise  the  addition  of  the  fruits  when  the 


Ice    Cream   Fillers  305 

cream  is  partially  frozen  and  not  at  the  beginning  of 
the  process. 

Fillers. — As  before  stated,  in  the  Neapolitan  or 
French  types  of  cream  eggs  are  used;  the  increase  in 
body  or  smoothness  being  very  slight,  the  value  of  the 
eggs  is  more  nutritive  than  otherwise.  All  kinds  of 
starches  are  used  to  give  more  substance  to  a  cream 
with  a  low  percentage  of  fat.  Rennet  in  various  forms 
is  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Gelatin  has  been  used 
in  commercial  creams  for  some  time.  It  not  only  adds 
body  but,  if  carefully  used,  prevents  the  crystallizing  of 
moisture  upon  standing,  and  keeps  the  cream  smooth. 
Gum  tragacanth,  a  vegetable  gum,  is  used  for  the  same 
purpose  as  gelatin;  its  tenacity  is  so  great  that  only 
a  very  small  amount  is  needed,  and  for  this  and  other 
reasons  it  is  gaining  favor.  Whether  or  not  these 
fillers  or  binders  should  be  used  is  questionable.  Suf- 
fice it  to  say  that  they  are,  strictly  speaking,  adultera- 
tions, and  so,  from  the  standpoint  of  purity  in  food 
products,  should  be  discountenanced. 

Freezing  and  packing. — Authorities  differ  on  the 
amount  and  kind  of  salt  that  should  be  added  to  the 
ice  in  freezing.  In  most  cook-books  coarse  salt  in  the 
proportion  of  one  of  salt  to  three  of  ice  is  recom- 
mended, but  some  recent  experiments*  show  that,  if 
the  ice  is  very  fine,  the  proportion  may  be  1:  12  or 
even  1  :  20.  It  is  important  that  the  greater  propor- 
tion of  salt  be  placed  midway  or  on  top,  as  salt  at  the 
bottom  of  the  freezer  is  largely  wasted. 


*Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  155. 
T 


306  Milk   and   Its   Products 

The  finer  the  salt,  the  more  rapidly  it  dissolves  and 
the  more  quickly  cold  is  produced,  thus  hastening  the 
freezing  process.  However,  it  is  believed  by  many 
that  it  is  better  that  the  cream  should  be  cooled  slowly 
at  first,  at  least  until  after  it  reaches  the  whipping 
point.  The  addition  of  water  to  the  salt  and  ice,  thus 
making  a  brine,  will  increase  the  freezing  to  a  consid- 
erable extent.  The  freezer  should  also  be  turned  slowly 
at  first,  for  rapid  agitation  before  passing  below  the 
churning  point  causes  small  lumps  of  butter  to  form. 
After  this  point,  the  cream  should  be  beaten  or  whipped 
by  rapid  revolution  of  the  dasher.  If  the  speed  is 
slow  throughout,  there  will  be  little  swell  and  a  coarser 
texture.  The  entire  process  should  take  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  minutes,  depending  upon  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cream  in  the  beginning;  the  cooler  the 
cream,  the  less  time  will  be  required. 

Transferring  and  packing. — If  only  a  single  batch 
is  made,  it  is  most  common  to  clean  off  the  dasher  and 
repack  the  ice  around  the  freezer.  However,  if  it  is 
necessary  to  transfer  the  cream  to  another  receptacle, 
it  should  be  done  while  fresh  and  in  a  rather  soft  con- 
dition. If  allowed  to  harden,  and  then  re -dished, 
there  will  be  a  considerable  loss  of  volume.  In  pack- 
ing or  repacking,  a  coarser  grade  of  salt  may  be  used, 
as  the  amount  of  cold  needed  is  only  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  frozen  condition. 

Freezers. — The  essential  parts  of  an  ice  cream 
freezer  are,  first,  the  vessel  in  which  the  cream  or 
other  material  to  be  frozen  is  contained.  This  is  fitted 
with  an  agitator,  with  which  to  stir  the  cream  during 


Types    of  Freezers  307 

the  process,  and  which,  in  turn,  is  set  in  a  larger  con- 
tainer, which  holds  the  ice  or  other  refrigerating 
material. 

Ice  cream  freezers  of  several  types  or  classes  are 
now  in  general  use,  the  chief  distinction  being  as  to 
whether  the  cream  is  frozen  in  successive  batches,  or 
continuously,  or  whether  brine  or  melting  ice  is  used 
as  the  refrigerant.  The  various  types  may  be  classi- 
fied as  follows:  Vertical  batch  ice,  vertical  batch  brine, 
horizontal  batch  brine,  and  horizontal  continuous  brine. 

The  first  type  is  the  one  in  common  use,  and  for 
small  quantities  is  practically  the  only  type  used. 
They  are  furnished  in  any  size  up  to  10  gallons,  and 
may  be  run  by  either  hand  or  power.  A  10 -gallon 
freezer  will  require  for  the  first  batch  from  10  to  20 
pounds  of  ice  and  from  5  to  6  pounds  of  salt.  Suc- 
ceeding batches  will  require  less  ice  because  the 
machine  has  been  cooled,  and  the  freezing  process  is 
ready  to  begin  almost  from  the  start. 

When  artificial  refrigeration  is  available,  the  brine 
freezer  has  the  advantage  of  better  control  of  temper- 
atures, and  does  away  with  the  inconvenience  of  hand- 
ling large  amounts  of  ice.  Brine  freezers  are  arranged 
so  that,  instead  of  crushed  ice  surrounding  the  con- 
tainer, refrigerated  brine  is  circulated  around  it.  Batch 
machines  of  this  sort  may  be  placed  either  vertically  or 
horizontally,  and  they  are  often  so  arranged  that  the 
finished  ice  cream  may  be  drawn  away  from  the  bottom 
or  side  without  removing  or  stopping  the  dash. 

The  last  type  of  horizontal  freezer  is  the  latest 
evolution  of  freezing  machinery,  and  differs  from  the 


308  Milk   and   Its   Products 

other  types  in  that  the  cream  flows  in  at  one  end  of 
the  machine  and  the  finished  ice  cream  out  at  the 
other,  refrigeration  being  secured  by  moving  disks 
through  the  center,  through  which  the  brine  is  circu- 
lated. This  machine  is  open,  and  the  process  can  be 
watched  and  temperatures  taken  as  it  progresses. 
These  machines  are  quite  often  operated  as  "batch" 
machines;  that  is  to  say,  the  cream  is  allowed  to  flow 
in  until  the  freezer  is  full,  or  nearly  so,  and  the 
finished  product  drawn  out,  not  continuously,  but 
from  time  to  time. 

Recipes. — With  the  wide  variety  of  materials  that 
are  used  in  making  the  various  kinds  of  ice  cream,  it 
is,  of  course,  impossible  to  make  anything  like  a  com- 
plete list  of  recipes-.  The  following  are  given  as 
typical  of  the  various  classes,  and  are  intended  to 
convey  something  of  the  proper  proportions  of  cream, 
sugar  and  flavoring  materials.  Vanilla  ice  cream  may 
be  taken  as  representative  o;f  the  types  of  plain  ice 
cream,  and  three  standard  formula  are  given  below. 

A.*  This  is,  doubtless,  the  most  common  of  ice 
creams.  To  make  10  gallons,  one  should  use  about 
50  pounds  (6  gallons)  of  aged  18  per  cent  cream  (or 
5%  gallons  of  cream  and  %  gallon  of  condensed  milk), 
about  one-sixth  that  quantity  (8  pounds)  of  sugar,  3 
to  4  ounces  of  vanilla  extract;  and  3  to  4  ounces  of 
gelatin,  or  1  quart  of  "gumstock,"  if  a  binder  seems 
called  for. 

B.  To  make  a  single  gallon  of  ice  cream,  one  should 

*Vermont  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  155. 


Ice    Cream   Recipes  309 

use  2  quarts  of  22  per  cent  cream  (4  pounds),  seven- 
tenths  pounds  (11  ounces)  of  sugar,  1%  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  vanilla  extract. 

C.*  To  make  10  gallons  of  finished  ice  cream,  use  5 
gallons  of  25  per  cent  cream,  8  pounds  of  sugar,  and 
4  ounces  of  vanilla. 

There  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  gained  by  the  use 
of  gelatin  in  ice  cream  made  at  home  for  immediate 
consumption.  The  sugar  should  be  thoroughly  dis- 
solved in  the  cream  before  the  freezing  process  is 
started,  although,  in  many  conditions,  the  time  and 
amount  of  agitation  given  before  the  cream  freezes  is 
sufficient  to  dissolve  and  to  mix  in  the  added  sugar. 
Experience  only  can  indicate  the  safety  of  this  point 
to  the  maker.  The  flavoring  may  be  added  at  any 
time  before  the  mass  starts  to  freeze. 

Vanilla  ice  cream  is  especially  accommodating  in 
that,  though  of  itself  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular 
flavors,  its  flavor  is  yet  so  delicate  that  it  easily  gives 
way  to  other  and  stronger  ones,  like  coffee  and  choco- 
late; so  that,  if  but  a  single  quart  or  gallon  of  coffee 
ice  cream  is  ordered,  it  is  not  an  infrequent  practice 
in  the  trade  to  mix  a  small  quantity  of  the  desired 
flavor  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vanilla  ice  cream, 
and  thus  to  accommodate  the  consumer  and  relieve 
the  dealer  of  certain  embarassments.  Or  if,  say, 
vanilla,  coffee,  and  strawberry  ice  creams  are  desired, 
the  stock  for  the  entire  three  kinds  is  made  up  as  one 
batch,  then  used  first  as  vanilla,  to  the  extent  desired, 


*Towa  State  College,  Bulletin  No.  123,  page  357. 


310 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


then  as  coffee,  and  then  as  strawberry,  one  after  the 
other,  all  from  one  and  the  same  vanilla  mix  and  with- 
out washing  the  machine,  and  usually  to  the  entire 
satisfaction  of  all  concerned. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  representative  formu- 
la for  the  various  kinds  of  ice  cream,  according  to 
Mortensen ' s  classification : 


Chocolate  Ice  Cream — 
5    gallons  cream. 
10    pounds  sugar. 
\\  pounds  bitter  chocolate. 

4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 

Afaple  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 

6  pounds  cane  sugar. 
2  pounds  maple  sugar. 
2  ounces  caramel. 

4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 

Caramel  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
8  pounds  sugar. 

12  ounces  caramel. 
4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 

Coffee  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
8  pounds  cane  sugar. 

Extract  from  1  pound  coffee. 

Mint  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 

8  pounds  cane  sugar. 

1  pint  concentrated  Creme  de 

Menthe  syrup. 

Few  drops  green  coloring. 

Walnut  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
8  pounds  cane  sugar. 


4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 

4  pounds  walnut  meats. 

Strawberry  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
8  pounds  sugar. 

1  quart  crushed  strawberries. 

Lemon  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
10  pounds  sugar. 
2  pints  lemon  juice. 

1  pint  orange  juice. 

Orange  Ice  Cream — 

5    gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
10    pounds  sugar. 

2  quarts  orange  juice. 
\    pint  lemon  juice. 

Macaroon  Ice  Cream — 

5  gallons  25  per  cent  cream. 
8  pounds  sugar. 

4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 

5  pounds  ground  macaroons. 

Walnut  Parfait — 

4  gallons  30  per  cent  cream. 

Yolks  of  10  dozen  eggs. 
14  pounds  sugar. 
4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 
4  pounds  ground  walnut 
meats. 


Other   Recipes 


311 


By  substituting  for  the  vanilla  extract  and  nut 
meats,  the  same  proportion  of  fruits  as  are  used  for 
fruit  ice  cream,  fruit  parfaits,  such  as  strawberry, 
raspberry  and  cherry  parfaits,  and  others,  may  be 
prepared. 

6  pounds     candied    cherries 

and  assorted  fruits. 
4  pounds  raisins. 
4  pounds  walnut  meats. 
4  pounds  filbert  meats. 

Lemon  Sherbet — 
6    gallons  water. 

Whites  of  2  dozen  eggs. 
24    pounds  sugar. 
6    pints  lemon  juice. 
1£  pints  orange  juice. 

Pineapple  Milk  Sherbet — 
6  gallons  milk. 
20  pounds  sugar. 

Whites  of  2  dozen  eggs. 
1  gallon  pineapple  pulp. 
1  quart  lemon  juice. 

Pineapple  Souffle — 
1|  gallons  water. 
4    dozen  eggs. 
12    pounds  sugar. 
1    gallon  grated  pineapple. 
1    quart  lemon  juice. 


Coffee  Parfait — 

4  gallons  30  per  cent  cream. 

Yolks  of  10  dozen  eggs. 
14  pounds  sugar. 

Extract  from  1  pound  cof- 
fee. 

Tutti  Frutti — 

4  gallons  30  per  cent  cream. 

Yolks  of  10  dozen  eggs. 
14  pounds  cane  sugar. 
4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 
3  pounds  candied  cherries. 
3  pounds    candied    assorted 
fruit. 

Cranberry  Mousse — 
2    gallons  30  per  cent  cream. 
4    pounds  cane  sugar. 
1    quart  cranberry  juice. 
I  pint  lemon  juice. 

Nesselrode  Pudding — 

3  gallons  30  per  cent  cream. 
10  dozen  eggs. 

10  pounds  cane  sugar. 

4  ounces  vanilla  extract. 


Scoring.— The  quality  of  ice  cream  may  be  judged 
by  a  score  card  in  the  same  way  that  other  dairy  prod- 
ucts are  scored.  A  score  card  proposed  by  the  Iowa 
Experiment  Station  is  as  follows: 


312  Milk   and   Its    Products 

1.  Flavor 45 

2.  Texture 25 

3.  Richness 15 

4.  Appearance 10 

5.  Color ~ 5 

Total 100 

The  points  in  the  score  card  may  be  described, 
explained,  and  criticised  as  follows: 

I.  Flavor. — The  flavor,  to  be  perfect,  must  be  clean 
and  creamy,  and  combined  with  flavoring  material  in 
such  a  way  as  to  blend  with  the  cream  in  a  full  and 
delicious  flavor.  Defects  in  flavor  are  various,  and  are 
usually  due  to  some  one  or  more  of  the  following 
causes  or  conditions: 

(1)  Defects   due   to   the  use   of  flavoring  materials 
which  will  not  blend  with  the  other  ingredients. 

(2)  Defects  due  to  cream  used: 

Sour  cream  flavor. 

Old  cream  flavor. 

Bitter  cream  flavor. 

Metallic  cream  flavor. 

Oily  cream  flavor. 

Weedy  cream  flavor. 

Barn  flavor 

Unclean  flavor. 

Burned,  overheated  or  scorched  flavor. 

(3)  Defects  in  flavor  due  to  filler  used: 

Condensed  milk  flavor. 
Starch  flavor. 
Gum  flavor. 
Gelatine  flavor. 


Points   in    Scoring  313 

(4)  Defects  in  flavor  due  to  other  ingredients: 

Too  sweet. 

Lack  of  sweetness. 

Coarse  flavor  due  to  flavoring  material. 

Stale  fruit  flavor. 

Rancid  nut  flavor. 

Mouldy  nut  flavor, 

II.  Texture. — Cream    of    perfect    texture    must    be 
firmly  frozen  and   be  smooth  and  velvety.     The  more 
common  defects  in  texture  may  be  described  as: 

Icy. — Due  to  the  presence  of  lumps  office  in  the 
cream.  It  is  most  noticeable  toward  the  bottom  of  the 
container,  and  may  be  due  to  improper  packing  or  to 
holding  too  long  ice  cream  which  was  manufactured 
without  filler. 

Coarse. — This  defect  may  be  due  to  the  use  of  too 
thin  cream,  or  to  packing  while  too  soft. 

Sticky. — Due  to  too  large  use  of  such  fillers  as 
gelatine,  sweetened  condensed  milk,  glucose,  etc. 

Buttery. — This  defect  is  due  to  the  use  of  cream 
which  has  been  partially  churned  before  freezing,  or 
to  cream  which  enters  the  freezer  at  too  high  a  tem- 
perature, in  which  case  it  is  churned  or  partially 
churned  while  freezing.  It  may  also  be  due  to  oper- 
ating the  freezer  at  a  too  high  speed,  or  to  some  defect 
in  the  construction  of  the  freezer. 

Too  soft. — Due  to  improper  packing  after  freezing. 

When  judging  ice  cream  containing  nuts,  fruits,  or 
other  solid  material,  due  allowance  should  be  made 
for  the  presence  of  such  ingredients. 

III.  Richness. — Ice    cream   containing    the   amount 


314  Milk   and  Its   Products 

of  butter -fat  required  by  the  state  pure  food  law  should 
be  considered  perfect  in  richness.  The  richness  is 
determined  by  making  chemical  analysis  for  fat. 

IV.  Appearance. — Ice     cream     scoring     perfect     in 
appearance  should  be  clean,  and  neatly  put  up,  and  in 
a  clean  container. 

Defects. — Cream  of  unclean  appearance;  lack  of 
parchment  circle  over  ice  cream;  dirty  container;  rusty 
container;  dirty  ice  cream  tub;  old  string  tags  at- 
tached to  handle  of  tub. 

When  judging  brick  ice  creams,  special  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  uniformity  of  the  layers,  to 
the  neat  folding  of  the  parchment  wrapper,  and  to 
cleanliness  and  general  appearance  of  the  package. 

V.  Color. — Ice   cream   of  perfect   color  is   such   as 
contains  only  the  natural  color  imparted  to  it  by  the 
flavoring  material  used;   or,  if  color  is  added,  it  should 
harmonize  with  the  particular  flavoring  used. 

Defects  in  Color. — Too  high  color;  unnatural  color, 
such  as  colors  different  from  the  color  of  the  natural 
flavoring  material  used. 

Individual  molds,  if  colored,  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  same  color  as  the  object  they  represent. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

OTHER  AND  BY-PRODUCTS   OF  THE  DAIRY 

THE  by-products  of  the  dairy  are  skimmed  milk, 
buttermilk  and  whey,  and  a  variety  of  products 
that  may  be  manufactured  from  them.  The  utiliza- 
tion of  these  by-products  to  the  best  advantage  is 
an  important  part  of  the  economy  of  dairy  manu- 
facture. 

Skimmed  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey. — By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  dairy  by-products  must  of  neces- 
sity be  utilized  as  food  for  animals,  either  because 
of  the  cost  of  transportation  or  for  lack  of  facility 
in  marketing  many  of  the  rather  perishable  products 
that  can  be  made  from  them.  All  of  these  products 
make  a  valuable  food  for  animals,  of  course  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  the  normal  constituents  of 
t,he  milk  which  they  contain.  Whey  is  less  valuable 
than  skimmed  milk  or  buttermilk,  because  it  has  lost 
the  greater  part  of  its  casein  as  well  as  fat,  but 
it  still  is  of  sufficient  value  to  render  its  utilization 
of  importance.  Naturally,  we  expect  that  young  ani- 
mals (calves  and  pigs)  will  thrive  the  best  upon 
these  products,  though  skimmed  milk  has  frequently 
been  fed  to  cows  with  good  results.  All  three  are, 
however,  so  bulky  that  some  more  concentrated  food 

(315) 


316  Milk   and   Its    Products 

should  be  fed  in  connection  with  them,  if  they  are 
used  to  the  best  advantage.  When  economically 
fed  to  young  pigs  and  calves,  skimmed  milk  and 
buttermilk  may  be  made  to  return  about  fifteen  cents 
per  hundred  weight,  and  whey  about  one-third  less. 
These  products  are  of  value  for  food  in  proportion 
as  the  milk  sugar  has  not  been  changed  to  lactic 
acid.  They  may  be  fed  in  unlimited  quantities  with- 
out ill  results  upon  the  health  of  the  animal,  ex- 
cept that  occasionally  when  the  milk  is  very  sour, 
or  when  fermentations  other  than  lactic  have  set 
in,  derangements  of  the  digestive  organs,  diarrhoea, 
etc.,  sometimes  occur.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  that 
all  of  these  products  should  be  fed  in  as  fresh  a  con- 
dition as  possible,  and  it  has  been  found  in  many 
instances  that  the  custom  of  sterilizing  or  partially 
sterilizing  the  skimmed  milk  or  whey  at  the  factory, 
by  injecting  a  jet  of  steam  into  it  until  the  whole 
is  heated  up  to  about  180°  F.,  is  practical,  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  beneficial  results. 

Condensed  milk. — In  1856  a  patent  was  granted 
to  Gail  Borden,  Jr.,  on  a  process  for  "concentrating 
sweet  milk  by  evaporation  in  vacuo,  having  no  sugar 
or  other  foreign  matter  mixed  with  it."  From  small 
beginnings  the  business  has  grown  to  enormous  pro- 
portions, and  is  still  largely  in  the  hands  of  the 
descendants  of  the  original  patentee. 

There  are  two  classes  of  condensed  milk,  namely, 
sweetened  and  unsweetened. 

Sweetened  condensed  milk.  —  Sweetened  condensed 
milk  was  the  first  condensed  milk  to  successfully  reach 


Condensed    Milk  317 

the  market  in  hermetically  sealed  cans.  It  is  made 
from  cows'  fresh  milk.  The  milk  is  first  heated  to  near 
the  boiling  point,  then  sucrose  (cane  sugar)  is  added  to 
the  extent  of  about  16  pounds  of  sugar  to  100  pounds  of 
fresh  milk.  The  milk  and  sugar  solution  is  condensed 


Pig.  56. 
Milk-condensing  pan. 


in  vacuo  at  a  temperature  of  130°  F.  to  150°  F.  The 
ratio  of  concentration  is  about  2% :  1  (2%  parts  of 
fresh  milk  are  condensed  to  1  part  of  condensed 
milk).  The  finished  product  contains  about  40  per 
cent  sucrose,  it  is  of  semi -liquid  consistency  and  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.29.  It  is  sold  partly  in 
hermetically  sealed  tin  cans  varying  in  capacity  from 


318  Milk   and  Its   Products 

8  to  20  ounces,  and  retailing  at  from  5  to  20  cents 
per  can;  and  partly  in  barrels  holding  from  300  to 
600  pounds  of  condensed  milk.  The  barrel  goods  are 
sold  to  bakeries  and  confectioners.  They  are  generally 
made  from  partly  or  wholly  skimmed  milk. 

Sweetened  condensed  milk  is  not  sterile,  but  is 
preserved  by  the  sucrose  it  contains;  it  will  keep  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time,  but  is  best  when  fresh. 

Unsweetened  condensed  milk. — There  are  three  kinds 
of  unsweetened  condensed  milk,  namely,  evaporated 
milk,  plain  condensed  bulk  milk,  and  concentrated  milk. 

Evaporated  milk. — In  the  manufacture  of  this  prod- 
uct, cows7  fresh  milk  is  heated  to  near  the  boiling 
point,  then  condensed  in  vacuo  at  130°  F.  to  150°  F. 
The  ratio  of  concentration  is  about  2%  :  1  (2%  parts 
of  fresh  milk  are  condensed  to  1  part  of  evaporated 
milk).  The  evaporated  milk  is  then  filled  and  sealed 
in  tin  cans  varying  in  size  from  8  ounces  to  1  gallon. 
The  hermetically  sealed  cans  are  sterilized  at  tempera- 
tures ranging  from  226°  F.  to  240°  F.  for  from  30  to 
60  minutes.  From  the  sterilizer  the  cans  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  shaker,  where  they  are  subjected  to  vio- 
lent agitation,  to  completely  break  up  the  coagulum 
that  may  have  formed  during  sterilization.  The  fin- 
ished product  has  the  consistency  of  cream  of  medium 
richness,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.065.  It 
sells  at  from  5  to  50  cents  per  can. 

Evaporated  milk  is  sterile,  it  keeps  indefinitely,  but 
is  best  when  fresh. 

Plain  condensed  bulk  milk. — This  kind  of  condensed 
milk  is  made  from  whole  milk,  partly  skimmed,  or 


Concentrated   Milk  319 

skimmed  milk.  The  fresh  milk  is  heated  to  about 
160°  F.  and  condensed  in  vacuo  at  130°  F.  to  150°  F. 
The  ratio  of  concentration  is  3  to  4  :  1  (3  to  4  parts 
of  fresh  milk  are  condensed  to  one  part  of  condensed 
milk).  Before  it  leaves  the  vacuum  pan,  it  is  super- 
heated by  live  steam  to  swell  or  thicken  it.  It  is  sold 
in  10 -gallon  milk  cans.  It  has  the  consistency  of 
very  thick  cream,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
1.09.  This  product  is  largely  sold  to  ice  cream  manu- 
facturers, and  limited  quantities  of  it  are  retailed  in 
milk  bottles  to  the  direct  consumer.  It  sells  at  from 
25  to  75  cents  per  gallon. 

Plain  condensed  bulk  milk  is  not  sterile.  Its  keep- 
ing quality  is  similar  to  that  of  a  good  grade  of  pas- 
teurized milk. 

Concentrated  milk. — Concentrated  milk  is  made 
from  fresh  milk.  Before  condensing,  the  cream  is 
removed,  and  the  skim  milk  is  condensed  at  140°  F. 
by  blowing  hot  air  through  the  milk.  When  the  con- 
centration is  completed,  the  cream  is  returned  to  the 
condensed  product.  The  ratio  of  concentration  is 
about  3  :  1  (about  3  parts  of  milk  are  condensed  to  1 
part  of  concentrated  milk) .  This  product  is  used  for 
direct  consumption.  It  differs  from  plain  condensed 
bulk  milk  only  in  that  it  has  not  been  exposed  to  so 
high  temperatures  during  the  process. 

Concentrated  milk  is  not  sterile.  It  keeps  about 
as  long  as  a  good  grade  of  pasteurized  milk.  Its 
manufacture  is  very  limited. 

The  chief  essential  in  the  successful  manufacture 
of  all  condensed  milks  is  a  good  quality  of  fresh  milk. 


320  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Milk  that  is  abnormal  in  its  properties  when  drawn, 
badly  contaminated  milk,  and  milk  that  has  not  been 
properly  and  promptly  cooled  on  the  farm  cannot  be 
safely  used  in  the  condensery.  Such  milk  either  does 
not  withstand  the  trials  of  the  process,  or  it  succumbs 
to  the  many  and  unfavorable  conditions  to  which  it  is 
subjected  on  its  long  journey  from  the  factory  to  the 
pantry  of  the  consumer.  Its  original  defects  magnify 
with  age  and  follow  it  to  its  destination,  resulting 
usually  in  heavy  loss  to  the  manufacturer. 

Milk  powders. — Several  processes  for  completely 
removing  the  water  from  milk  'have  been  invented  and 
are  in  more  or  less  successful  operation.  The  resulting 
product  is  in  the  form  of  a  creamy  white  powder  which 
upon  agitation  readily  unites  with  water,  thus  restoring 
the  milk.  Skimmed  milk  thus  treated  is  much  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  custards  and  other  bakers'  products ; 
but  the  powder  from  whole  milk  soon  becomes  rancid 
and  is  very  little  used. 

Dried  casein,  paper  sizing.  —  The  casein  of  milk 
in  a  dry  form  is  useful  in  certain  manufacturing 
processes,  and  has  been  found  to  be  particularly  val- 
uable for  the  preparation  of  sizing  for  paper,  the 
preparation  of  paint  and  various  other  uses.  The 
manufacture  of  dry  casein  for  this  purpose  has 
come  to  be  an  important  means  of  utilizing 
skimmed  milk  in  many  creameries,  and  its  prepara- 
tion is  comparatively  simple.  The  skimmed  milk  is 
collected  in  a  vat  and  the  curd  precipitated  with  a 
mineral  acid.  A  mixture  of  acetic  and  sulphuric 
acids  is  commonly  used,  and  from  /£  to  1  per  cent 


Milk   Sugar  321 

is  sufficient.  When  the  curd  has  formed,  which 
will  be  as  soon  as  the  acid  is  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  milk,  the  whey  is  drawn  off  and  the 
curd  washed  two  or  three  times  with  warm  water. 
It  is  then  taken  out  and  pressed  as  dry  as  possible, 
after  which  it  is  ground  rather  fine  in  a  peg  mill 
and  then  dried  in  an  oven  till  perfectly  dry.  The 
amount  usually  realized  from  the  skimmed  milk  in 
this  way  is  not  more  than  may  be  realized  when 
it  is  skilfully  fed  to  animals. 

Milk  sugar. — Milk  contains  between  4  and  5  per 
cent  of  milk  sugar,  and  the  manufacture  of  this  sugar 
has  come  to  be  an  important  industry.  In  the  manu- 
facture, whey  is  preferably  used,  or  if  skimmed  milk 
the  casein  is  first  coagulated  and  removed.  The 
water  is  then  removed  by  evaporation  until  the  crys- 
tals of  sugar  are  formed.  Various  methods  are  used 
to  rid  the  sugar  of  albumin  and  other  materials  con- 
tained in  the  whey.  Formerly  this  was  a  somewhat 
difficult  operation,  and  added  considerably  to  the  ex- 
pense of  the  manufacture,  but  recently  improvements 
have  been  made  in  this  respect,  so  that  the  cost  of 
the  manufacture  of  the  sugar  is  much  lessened.  The 
growth  of  the  industry  has  been  very  rapid,  result- 
ing in  a  much  lower  price  for  the  product  and  a  very 
much  increased  consumption.  Formerly,  almost  the 
only  use  of  milk  sugar  was  medicinal.  Now,  be- 
cause of  its  digestibility,  it  forms  an  important  in- 
gredient of  many  of  the  so-called  infants'  and  inva- 
lids' foods.  It  is  usually  prepared  in  the  form  of  a 
white  crystalline  powder,  only  mildly  sweet  to  the 
taste. 
u 


322  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Dutch  cheese  (cottage  cheese,  schmierkase,  pot  cheese, 
etc.). — A  toothsome  and  nutritious  article  of  food  is 
made  from  sour  skimmed  milk  or  buttermilk  by  al- 
lowing the  casein  to  coagulate  by  the  action  of  lactic 
acid  already  formed,  and  then  expelling  the  water  by 
the  aid  of  heat.  A  considerable  number  of  products 
locally  distinct,  and  differing  in  the  degree  of  dryness 
of  the  casein,  are  made  in  this  way,  the  general  pro- 
cess of  manufacture  being  to  take  sour  buttermilk,  or 
skimmed  milk  which  has  coagulated,  heating  gently  to 
from  85°  to  125°  F.,  according  to  circumstances,  drain- 
ing off  the  whey  through  a  cloth  strainer,  and  then 
reducing  the  texture  of  the  resulting  curd  by  knead- 
ing with  the  hands  or  a  pestle ;  salt  is  added,  and 
the  product  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
amount  of  cream  or  butter,  and  occasionally  by  the 
use  of  some  of  the  more  common  spices,  as  nutmeg, 
caraway,  etc.  It  is  commonly  made  only  for  domestic 
consumption,  but  in  most  cities  and  villages,  es- 
pecially during  the  summer  months,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable demand  for  fresh  cheese  of  this  sort,  and 
its  manufacture  is  often  a  source  of  revenue  to  fac- 
tories suitably  located.  It  is  usually  sold  and  eaten 
in  a  fresh  state,  but  it  may  be  subjected  to  cer- 
tain curing  processes,  which  quite  materially  change 
its  character,  and  which  vary  widely  in  different 
localities. 

Whey  cheese  (primost  and  myseost) . — These  are  pro- 
ducts manufactured  from  whey  in  some  of  the  north 
European  countries  and  among  the  Scandinavians  in 
our  own.  They  are  really  forms  of  evaporated  whey 


Prlmost,    Cheese   Food  323 

and,  according  to  Monrad,*  are  made  somewhat  as 
follows  :  The  whey,  not  too  sour,  is  boiled  in  a 
suitable  vessel  under  a  slow  fire,  care  being  taken 
that  it  is  not  scorched  or  burnt  ;  when  the  albumi- 
nous, matters  are  coagulated  they  are  removed  to  facil- 
itate evaporation,  and  the  evaporation  is  carried  on 
until  the  whole  mass  assumes  a  syrupy  condition: 
the  albuminous  matters  are  then  returned  to  the 
condensed  whey,  the  whole  is  removed  from  the  fire 
and  mixed  rapidly  until  in  the  form  of  a  thick 
mush ;  some  cream  is  then  added  and  the  material 
pressed  in  brick  shaped  moulds,  and  after  a  day  or 
two  is  ready  for  market.  It  is  practically  unknown 
except  in  those  districts  where  the  Scandinavian 

population  is  large. 

/ 

Cheese  food.  — Within  the  last  few  years  an  en- 
terprising cheese -maker,  Mr.  J.  J.  Angus,  of  Wiscon- 
sin, has  perfected  a  system  of  manufacturing  what 
he  .  calls  a  complete  cheese  food.  It  is  simply  a  pro- 
duct containing  all  the  constituents  of  the  milk  in 
a  condensed  form.  An  ordinary  cheddar  cheese  is 
first  made  and  cured ;  the  whey  is  evaporated  to  a 
syrupy  consistency,  and  the  cheese  from  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  milk  is  ground  down  to  a  pasty 
consistency  and  mixed  with  the  evaporated  whey. 
The  resulting  mass  is  pressed  into  cakes  of  conve- 
nient size,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  will  keep 
a  long  time.  The  cheese  food  is  a  soft,  homoge- 
neous substance  of  a  mildly  cheese -like,  sweetish 
flavor. 

*A  B  C  of  Ch«««e-m«kin«.    Winnetka.  111.  1880. 


324  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Koumiss  is  a  beverage  made  from  milk  that  has 
undergone  alcoholic  fermentation.  It  resembles  but- 
termilk in  taste,  but  has  a  frothy  appearance  and 
the  casein  of  the  milk  is  coagulated  into  a  fine  curd. 
It  was  originally  made  from  mares'  milk  by  various 
wandering  tribes  in  Russia  and  Asia.  It  has  been 
found  to  possess  certain  dietic  properties,  and  is 
now  prepared  from  cows'  milk  by  various  formulas. 
According  to  Fleischman,  one  of  the  best  formu- 
las is  as  follows : 

One  hundred  pounds  of  separator  skim  milk  is 
mixed  with  42  pounds  of  water,  1.75  pounds  of 
granulated  sugar,  .75  pounds  of  milk-sugar  and 
5%  to  6  ounces  of  good  yeast,  and  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  32  hours  at  a  temperature  of  100°  F. 
During  this  time  the  mixture  is  stirred  about  six 
times  at  equal  intervals.  It  is  then  decanted  into 
patent -stoppered  bottles,  the  stoppers  secured  and 
the  bottles  put  into  a  cellar  at  a  temperature  of 
55°  F.  It  should  be  used  within  six  days. 

Kephir  is  a  similar  beverage  to  Koumiss.  In  its 
preparation  the  fermentation  is  brought  about  by 
certain  bodies,  the  so-called  Kephir  grains,  of  which 
very  little  is  known.  Kephir  is  but  little  known 
in  this  country. 

Wheyn. — Quite  recently  there  has  been  patented 
in  this  country  by  Alexander  Bernstein,  of  Berlin, 
Germany,  a  nourishing,  mildly  stimulating  drink  with 
the  above  name.  It  is,  according  to  the  specifications 
of  the  letters  patent,  a  sour,  sterilized  whey,  from 
which  the  albuminous  matter  and  fat  have  been  re- 


Wheyn  325 

moved.  It  is  put  up  without  further  treatment,  or  it 
may  be  flavored  with  hops  or  other  material,  which 
may  also  be  carbonated,  or  subjected  to  a  mild  alco- 
holic fermentation 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
SUTTEE   AND    CHEESE  FACTORIES 

Location  of  creameries. — In  the  location  of  a 
creamery  no  one  thing  is  more  important  than  to 
secure  a  well  drained  site,  and  yet  this  is  in  many 
cases  evidently  the  last  thing  thought  of.  Cream- 
eries .are  located  in  any  out  of  the  way  corner  or 
bit  of  waste  land  that  happens  to  be  at  hand. 
The  drainage  is  no  less  an  important  matter  to  be 
considered  in  selecting  a  creamery  site  than  in  se- 
lecting a  house  site.  The  foundation  of  cleanliness 
in  a  creamery  begins  with  the  sewer,  and  unless 
the  waste  materials  can  be  completely  and  quickly 
drawn  away  the  labor  of  keeping  the  whole  prem- 
ises clean  is  very  much  enhanced. 

Other  things  being  equal,  then,  elevated  ground 
should  be  selected  as  a  proper  site  for  a  creamery, 
and  if  the  advantage  of  the  elevation  can  be  made 
use  of  in  the  arrangement  of  the  working  rooms, 
so  much  the  better.  Another  matter  that  may  prove 
of  considerable  value  in  many  cases  is  a  regard  for 
the  natural  or  artificial  shelter  that  may  be  given  the 
creamery  building.  A  difference  of  six  or  eight  de- 
grees in  the  work-room  temperature  may  be  easily 
secured  by  having  a  due  regard  to  the  advantages  of 

(326) 


Arrangement   of   Creameries 


327 


shade  from  groves  or  the  channels  of  natural  air 
drainage.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  well  to  lo- 
cate the  building  on  a  too  bleak  or  exposed  site,  and 
yet  the  great  majority  of  creameries  are  either  ex- 
posed to  the 
full  rays  of 
the  August 
sun  or  to  the 
bleak  winds  of 
winter. 

Arrang  e- 
ment  of  build- 
in  g.  —  Two 
general  princi- 
ples govern 
the  arrange- 
ment of  cream- 


Fig.  57.    Diagram  of  creamery  arranged  upon  the 
"gravity"  plan. 


ery  buildings.  In  the  one,  the  milk  is  taken  in  at  such 
an  elevation  that  it  may  now  by  gravity,  from  the 
weighing  can  to  the  receiving  vat,  thence  to  the  tem- 
pering vat,  thence  to  the  separator,  and  finally  to  the 
skimmed  milk  and  cream  vats.  In  the  other,  the  milk 
is  taken  in  on  a  level  with  the  work-room  floor,  and 
is  elevated  by  pumps.  Both  plans  have  their  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages.  The  main  advantage  of 
what  may  be  called  the  "gravity"  system  is,  that 
the  milk  flows  by  its  own  weight  during  the  whole 
course  of  manufacture,  and  no  pumps,  troublesome 
to  keep  clean,  are  necessary.  As  an  offset  to  this 
advantage,  it  entails  a  considerable  amount  of  ex- 
tra labor  in  ascending  and  descending  the  neces- 


328 


Milk   and   Its   Products. 


sary  stairs  or  steps.  The  pumping  system,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  economical  of  labor,  but  intro- 
duces one  or 
more  pumps, 
through  which 
the  milk  must 
be  passed,  and 
which  are  al- 
ways, even 
when  of  the 
simplest  pat- 
tern, more  or 
less  difficult  to 
keep  clean, 
and  exceeding- 
ly liable  to  be 
neglected.  In 
the  outline  diagrams  is  a  creamery  arranged  ac- 
cording to  either  system.  By  reference  to  the  ground 
plan  (Fig.  59,  page  329),  it  may  be  seen  that  in 
either  case  the  amount  of  floor  space  required  is  the 
same.  In  Fig.  57  is  shown  the  elevation  under 
the  "gravity"  arrangement,  with  the  exception  that 
the  skimmed  milk  vat  is  shown  elevated.  Here  the 
milk  is  taken  in  at  A,  passes  to  B  the  receiving 
vat,  thence  to  C  the  tempering  vat,  thence  to  D  the 
separator,  thence  to  E  the  cream  vat,  and  through 
the  pump  H  to  F  the  skimmed  milk  vat.  In  the 
pumping  system,  Fig.  58,  the  same  letters  indicate 
corresponding  parts.  It  will  be  seen  here  that  the 
milk  is  pumped  through  G  from  B  to  C.  Referring 


Fig.   58.       Diagram  of  creamery  arranged   upon   the 
pumping"  plan. 


Arrangement   of  Creameries 


329 


again,  then,  to  the  floor  plan,  if   the   arrangement   be 
according  to  the  pumping  system,  the  operator,  stand- 


Fig.  5P  Ground  plan  of  creamery  in  Figs.  39  and  40.  A,  weighing  can  ;  B, 
receiving  vat  ;  C,  tempering  vat ;  D,  separator  ;  E,  cream  vat ;  J,  churn  : 
JT,  butter  worker;  L,  cold  storage  room  ;  M,  office  ;  2V\  boiler  room  ;  O,  fuel. 

ing  near  his  scales  and  receiving  vat  A,  is  but  a  step 
from  the  separator  D  and  the  boiler  N,  and  can  easily 
give  attention  to  all  parts  of  his  factory.  Whereas, 
if  the  creamery  is  arranged  upon  the  "  gravity " 
plan,  he  must  be  constantly  ascending  and  descend- 
ing a  series  of  steps  between  A  and  D.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  that  when  the  factory  is  to  be  a 


330  Milk   and   Its   Products 

large  one,  requiring  the  services  of  more  than  one 
man,  that  the  "gravity"  system  is  preferable,  be- 
cause of  doing  away  with  the  objectionable  pumps. 
Whereas,  if  the  factory  is  to  be  a  small  one,  and 
one  man  is  to  do  all  the  work,  the  amount  of 
labor  saved  by  the  more  compact  pumping  system 
will  more  than  overbalance  the  objection  arising 
from  pumps.  In  a  factory  of  the  size  indicated, 
handling  from  three  to  five  thousand  pounds  of 
milk  per  day,  a  floor  space  of  about  18x24  feet 
will  be  required.  In  larger  factories,  it  will  be 
found  of  advantage,  in  controlling  the  temperature, 
to  introduce  partitions,  so  that  the  receiving  and 
separating  room  may  be  separated  from  the  churn- 
ing and  working  room,  and  if  much  gutter  is  to 
be  made  up  into  prints,  a  third,  colder  room,  for 
printing  the  butter,  will  .be  found  of  great  advan- 
tage during  the  warm  part  of  the  year.  Here,  too, 
the  question  of  labor  again  comes  into  play.  When 
the  creamery  is  so  small  that  all  the  work  is  done 
by  one  man,  labor  is  economized  by  having  all  the 
operations  conducted  in  one  room,  but  where  two  or 
three,  or  even  more  men  are  employed,  it  will  be 
found  of  advantage  to  have  separate  rooms  for  the 
different  operations. 

Construction. — The  building  should  be  laid  upon 
solid  foundation  walls  rather  than  upon  piers. 
Besides  adding  decidedly  to  the  appearance  of  the 
building,  it  aids  materially  in  keeping  the  build- 
ing warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer.  In  regard 
to  the  floors,  cement  floors  are  the  most  expensive 


Construction   and    Superstructure  331 

and  the  most  durable,  and  if  well  laid  and  com- 
posed of  the  best  materials,  are  entirely  satisfactory. 
But  wooden  floors,  tightly  laid  upon  a  well -drained 
foundation,  are  fairly  durable,  and  when  out  of  re- 
pair may  be  easily  replaced  at  comparatively  small 
cost.  Whatever  the  floors,  they  must  be  thor- 
oughly sewered.  The  floor  should  slant  rapidly 
to  the  gutter,  so  that  all  water  will  quickly  run 
off  through  a  thoroughly  trapped  iron  pipe  until  the 
outside  of  the  building  is  reached,  after  which 
well -glazed  sewer  pipe  may  be  used.  An  abundant 
supply  of  pure  water  is  indispensable.  This,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  will  be  obtained  from  a  well. 
A  bored  or  driven  well  is  less  liable  to  contami- 
nation than  an  open  dug  well,  but  in  any  event 
the  site  of  the  well  should  be  chosen  with  due 
regard  to  possible  sources  'of  contamination.  If 
the  water  is  very  abundant  and  at  a  temperature 
below  48°,  a  supply  of  ice  is  not  indispensable, 
except  for  cold  storage  purposes,  but  it  will  be 
found  in  most  cases  to  be  of  great  advantage. 
In  any  event,  the  means  of  readily  securing  and 
maintaining  in  the  cream  a  temperature  of  50°  F. 
or  below  is  indispensable.  Water  and  steam  pipes 
should  be  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  building  where 
their  presence  may  be  of  advantage  for  cleaning 
purposes. 

The  superstructure  may  be  as  elaborate  or  as 
simple  as  desired.  At  the  least,  it  should  offer  as 
good  protection  from  the  elements  as  a  well-built 
house  does.  In  fact,  the  construction  need  not 


332 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


differ  from  that  of  ordinary  house  construction, 
except  that  ceiling  on  the  inside  take  the  place  of 
plaster. 

The    inside    finish     should     be    of     matched     and 
planed    lumber,   thoroughly   protected    with    hard    oil. 


F 
H      h 


to 


-D- 


Fig.  GO.     Plan  of  cheese  factory  properly  arranged. 

It  should  be  needless  to  say  that  the  outside  should 
be  neatly  and  tastefully  painted,  yet  well -pain  ted 
creameries  are  the  exception  and  not  the  rule. 

Cheese  factories. — All  that  was  said  in  regard  to 
the  location  of  creameries  applies  with  equal  force 
to  cheese  factories.  Heretofore,  perhaps,  even  less 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  drainage  of  cheese 
factories  than  to  creameries,  but  it  is  quite  as  neces- 
sary. The  arrangement  of  the  cheese  factory  is  con- 
siderably simpler  than  that  of  the  creamery,  and  mis- 


Arrangement   of   Cheese   Factories 


333 


takes  in  arrangement  are  less  liable  to  be  made. 
The  governing  principle  should  be  that  the  milk,  in 
its  transformation  from  milk  to  cheese,  should  pass 
in  one  direction  from  the  weighing  can  toward  the 
curing  room.  The  outlines  given,  Figs.  60  and 


Fig.  61.    Plan  of  cheese  factory  improperly  arranged. 

61,  show  factories  properly  and  improperly  arranged. 
In  Fig.  60,  the  milk  taken  in  at  A  passes  into  the 
vats  at  B,  from  thence  to  the  curd  sink  C,  and  the 
press  D,  and  finally  to  the  curing  room  E,  con- 
stantly in  one  direction  and  with  a  minimum  of  hand 
labor.  Whereas,  in  Fig.  61.  following  the  same  let- 
ters, the  milk  or  curd  travels  from  one  end  of  the 
room  to  the  other  and  back  again.  While  cheese 
factories,  as  a  rule,  are  used  only  during  the  warm 
months  of  the  year,  and  perhaps  for  that  reason 


334  Milk   and   Its   Products 

may  be  less  warmly  built,  still  it  is  not  sufficient 
that  the  superstructure  be  merely  of  siding  nailed 
to  the  joists,  leaving  the  inside  bare.  While,  per- 
haps, it  is  not  necessary  that  the  outer  siding  be 
double,  or  that  building  paper  be  used  upon  the 
joists,  still  the  joists  should  always  be  ceiled  upon 
the  inside  and  the  ceiling  neatly  finished  in  oil. 
The  construction  of  the  curing  room  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  cheese  factory.  Here  the 
construction  should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  a 
fairly  constant  temperature  may  be  maintained.  This 
can  hardly  be  secured  unless  the  building  is  covered 
on  the  outside  with  two  thicknesses  of  boards,  with 
paper  between  and  tightly  ceiled  upon  the  inside. 
This  part  of  the  factory,  at  least,  should  always  be 
upon  a  solid  wall  foundation.  Constructed  in  this 
way,  if  care  is  taken  to  ventilate  the  building  thor- 
oughly at  night,  and  to  close  it  tight  during  the 
day  time,  a  fairly  cool  curing  room  can  be  secured 
even  during  the  hottest  weather ;  but  the  temperature 
can  be  much  more  satisfactorily  regulated  if  the  ven- 
tilation comes  through  a  sub -earth  duct  for  a  con- 
siderable distance.  This  may  be  arranged  by  laying 
a  three  or  four -inch  glazed  sewer  pipe  at  least  four 
feet  deep,  from  a  point  on  the  surface  fifteen  or 
twenty  rods  from  the  building,  and  opening  into 
the  center  of  the  curing  room  through  the  floor. 
If  the  mouth  of  this  sub-earth  duct  can  be  placed 
in  such  a  position  that  the  prevailing  winds  will 
blow  toward  it,  a  circulation  of  cool  air  can  more 
easily  and  certainly  be  secured. 


Farm   Dairy   Buildings  335 

Combined  butter  and  cheese  factories. — The  connec- 
tion between  the  butter  and  cheese  markets  is  such 
that  it  is  coming  to  be  of  considerable  advantage 
for  a  factory  to  be  able  to  make  either  butter  or 
cheese.  In  many  cases  but  little  additional  room  or 
expense  is  necessary.  If  in  the  creamery  the  receiv- 
ing vat  is  of  the  same  construction  as  an  ordinary 
cheese  vat,  that  is,  piped  so  that  hot  water  or  steam 
can  be  introduced  around  it,  all  that  is  necessary  in 
order  to  make  cheese  is  to  add  a  cheese  press  and 
the  necessary  curing  room.  In  a  cheese  factory  the 
addition  of  a  separator,  churn  and  worker  serves  to 
transform  it  into  a  creamery.  It  is  true  that  the 
presence  of  the  necessary  equipment  is  always  a 
temptation  toward  the  making  of  skimmed  milk  cheese 
during  a  part  of  the  year,  but  a  due  regard  for  the 
reputation  of  the  products  of  the  factory  will  always 
result  in  making  either  full  cream  cheese  or  butter 
alone.  Naturally  the  manufacture  of  cheese  is  most 
advantageous  during  the  summer  months,  and  the 
manufacture  of  butter  most  profitable  during  the 
winter  months.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  dairy 
manufacture  will  tend  in  this  direction  in  the  future, 
instead  of  certain  localities  being  devoted  almost  ex- 
clusively to  butter  manufacture  and  others  to  cheese 
manufacture,  as  in  the  past. 

Farm  dairy  buildings. — Heretofore  the  farm  dairy 
work  has  shared  with  the  other  farm  industries  and 
the  domestic  life  the  room  necessary  to  its  prosecu- 
tion, and  this  has  been  and  still  is  a  main  reason 
for  the  general  inferiority  of  farm  dairy  products.  In 


336  Milk   and   Its   Products 

order  that  the  farm  dairy  be  successful,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  some  certain  place  be  set  aside  rigorously 
for  its  prosecution.  The  dairy  cannot  be  associated 
with  the  kitchen,  the  vegetable  cellar,  or  any  other 
part  of  the  farm  buildings  except  to  its  own  detri- 
ment. The  room  or  building  devoted  to  the  farm 
dairy  need  not  be  large  nor  elaborate.  It  should 
simply  secure  a  room  of  convenient  size,  shut  off 
from  any  other  occupation,  well  lighted,  well  venti- 
lated, well  drained,  and  reasonably  cool  in  tempera- 
ture. It  is  entirely  possible  that  this  room  be  a 
part  of  the  house  cellar,  but  if  so  it  should  have 
its  own  individual  exit,  and  be  completely  shut  off 
from  the  cellar  at  large.  In  the  same  way  it  may 
be  a  part  of  any  of  the  farm  out -buildings,  or  it 
may  be  a  building  by  itself.  As  to  whether  in  a 
moderate  sized  dairy,  where  say  twenty  to  forty  cows 
are  kept,  the  dairy  should  have  a  building  separate 
from  others  or  not,  depends  largely  upon  the  way 
in  which  the  dairy  work  is  carried  on.  If  the  dairy 
is  so  large  that  power  is  required  for  the  churning, 
or  if  the  cream  is  raised  by  a  gravity  process,  it 
will  undoubtedly  be  of  advantage  that  the  dairy 
should  occupy  a  separate  building ;  but  if  the  cream 
is  separated  by  centrifugal  process,  and  power  is  not 
required  for  churning,  then  the  milk  may  be  sepa- 
rated in  the  barn  adjoining  the  stable,  and  only  the 
cream  carried  to  the  dairy  room  proper.  There  are 
many  advantages  in  this  latter  plan.  In  the  first 
place,  the  labor  of  carrying  the  milk  to  the  dairy, 
and  the  skimmed  milk  and  buttermilk  away,  is  done 


Farm    Dairy   Buildings  337 

away  with.  In  the  second  place,  the  room  required 
for  ripening  the  cream  and  churning  the  butter  is 
very  small,  even  for  a  dairy  of  considerable  size,  and 
may  easily  be  fitted  up  in  a.  cool  corner  of  the 
cellar.  The  only  disadvantage  is  that  steam  for 
cleaning  the  utensils  is  not  conveniently  at  hand, 
but  tho  advantages  in  most  cases  will  outweigh  this 
single  disadvantage.  If  this  requisite  of  the  farm 
dairy  building  or  apartment  is  secured,  namely,  a 
room  devoted  to  nothing  but  butter  or  cheese  manu- 
facture—  light,  airy  and  well  drained  —  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  very  highest  quality  of  products 
should  not  be  made  under  such  conditions,  and 
there  are  several  reasons  why  a  better  product  can 
be  made  than  under  the  ordinary  factory  conditions, 
where  the  production  and  care  of  the  milk  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  large  number  of  persons,  over  whom  the 
butter -maker  or  cheese -maker  can  at  best  exercise 
only  partial  control. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

STATISTICS  AND  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  DAIRY 
INDUSTRY 

THE  dairy  industry  in  its  development  has  fully 
kept  pace  with  other  industries  and  with  the  pop- 
ulation. The  total  number  of  milch  cows  has  in- 
creased between  two  and  three  fold  since  1850, 
though  in  1890  there  were  slightly  fewer  cows  in 
proportion  to  the  population  than  in  1850.  But  while 
the  number  of  cows  has  not  increased  faster  than  the 
population,  their  product  has  materially  done  so. 
This  is  seen  in  the  average  yield  per  cow  and  in 
the  increase  in  the  production  of  butter  and  cheese. 
In  1850  the  average  yield  per  cow  was  166%  gallons. 
This  had  increased  in  1890  to  315.4  gallons,  or 
nearly  100  per  cent.  The  total  production  of  butter 
was  nearly  four  times  as  much  in  1890  as  it  was  in 
1850,  and  the  production  of  cheese  slightly  less  than 
2%  times  as  much. 

The  various  details  of  this  development  are  well 
shown  in  the  following  .tables,  compiled  from  the 
United  States  Census  reports  by  the  Dairy  Division 

of  the   United   States   Department   of   Agriculture  :* 

______  / 

*U.  S.   Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin    No.    II    (Dairy 
No.  1), 

(338) 


Statistics  of  Production 


339 


M'OOCO          qoo 
rr>  in  o       77*5  *° 


a~  "«, 


H 


idilliM 

O.      O.^  e "°     .    .  « 
'     'I 


G  **"    •        u 

;!M 

l"o^  c  1^ 


5^ 


'  .  .£ 

•::l 
i:«P 


51! 


l!si  i|:i§8l?^18I^tt 

i  Hi 


l  iiill 


«     ua«>>o^  B 

s   -a*.** sl-a* 


£  > 

u 


J  1 81 


is  Jj|i|  stiii 

!* 

II 

:;  isjlj;fij»i 

SJ 

MO      "  «>|M"  «  *^  o-a  « 

^^         gO^x; 

i?  :95i 


:} 

u|  fifijjK  e^ 

sS  Illlfl^ilgl 


340 


Milk   and    Its   Products 


Value   of  principal  farm  products    of  the    United   States 


1859. 

1879. 

1889. 

Products. 

Per 
cent. 

Total  value. 

Per 
cent. 

Total  value. 

Per 
cent. 

Total  value. 

Meats                   .   . 

17  9 

$300  000  000 

22  1 

$800  000  000 

23  9 

$900  000  000 

Corn    
Hay  
Dairy  products  .   . 
Wheat        
Cotton       .... 
Poultry         .... 
Other  products  (a) 

21.6 
9.1 
14.4 
7.5 
12.6 
4.5 
12.4 

880,680,878 

152,671,168 
240,400,580 
124,635,545 
211,516,625 
75,000,000 
206,639,527 

19.2 
11.3 
10.8 
12 
7.5 
5 
12.1 

694,818,304 
409,505,783 
391,131,618 
436,968,463 
271,636,121 
180,000,000 
440,438,353 

15.9 
14 
11 
9.1 
8.2 
5.3 
12.6 

597,918,829 
526,632,062 
411,976,522 
342,491,707 
307,008,114 
200,000,000 
472,492,249 

Grand  total  .   . 

100 

$1,671,544,323 

100 

$3,624,498,642 

100 

$3,758,519,483 

a  "Other  products"  include  barley,  buckwheat,  flax  fiber,  flaxseed,  hemp, 
hops,  Irish  potatoes,  leaf  tobacco,  maple  sirup,  maple  sugar,  oats,  rice,  rye, 
sorghum  molasses,  sweet  potatoes,  and  wool. 

But  it  is  not  so  much  in  the  amount  of  dairy 
product  manufactured  as  in  the  way  the  business  is 
done  that  the  dairy  industry  shows  its  most  remarka- 
ble advances.  Up  to  1850  the  whole  dairy  output 
was  produced,  manufactured,  and  marketed  from  in- 
dividual farms.  Since  then  the  introduction  and 
wonderful  growth  of  associated  dairying,  or  the  fac- 
tory system,  has  taken  place,  and  this  period  has 
also  witnessed  the  introduction  of  so  many  and  so 
varied  machines  and  utensils  that  the  dairy  practice 
of  forty  or  even  twenty  years  ago  is  entirely  rev- 
olutionized in  the  methods  of  to-day.  But  while 
associated  dairying  has  made  rapid  strides,  both  in 
butter  and  cheese  making,  it  is  only  in  cheese 
making  that  the  factory  system  can  be  said  to  have 
at  all  supplanted  private  dairying.  In  1890  only 
a  little  more  than  7  per  cent  of  all  the  cheese 
produced  was  made  outside  of  factories;  while  in  the 


Butter  and    Cheese   Factories  341 

same  year,  of  the  1,205,508,384  pounds  of  butter 
made  in  the  country,  only  181,284,916  pounds,  or 
about  15  per  cent,  was  made  in  factories. 

Development  of  the  factory  system. — Associated 
dairying,  or  the  manufacture  of  the  milk  of  several 
patrons  at  one  place,  under  the  eye  of  a  single 
person,  was  at  first  limited  wholly  to  cheese  making. 
The  system  may  be  said  to  have  been  inaugurated 
by  Jesse  Williams,  in  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.,  when 
in  1851  he  began  the  manufacture  of  milkf  produced 
by  himself  and  several  sons  located  on  farms  near 
by,  into  cheese  under  his  immediate  supervision. 
From  this  beginning  the  number  of  cheese  factories 
increased,  slowly  at  first  but  afterward  more  rapidly, 
until  in  1870  there  were  in  operation  1,313  cheese 
factories.  Up  to  this  time  butter  factories  were  un- 
known, but  within  a  few  years  began  to  be  rapidly 
established,  and  in  1890  there  were  of  both  butter 
and  cheese  factories  4,712.  Ten  states  —  New  York, 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Ver- 
mont, Minnesota,  Michigan  and  Kansas,  in  the  order 
named  —  contained  nearly  90  per  cent  of  all  the  fac- 
tories. Of  these  there  were  in  New  York  1,337, 
in  Wisconsin  966,  and  in  Iowa  500,  or  nearly  60 
per  cent  of  the  whole. 

When  the  first  butter  factories  or  creameries,  as 
they  are  more  generally  called,  were  established,  the 
milk  of  the  several  patrons  was  drawn  to  the  fac- 
tory, set  in  deep  cans,  usually  surrounded  by  running 
water,  and  afterward  skimmed  and  churned.  After 
a  time  the  gathered -cream  system  was  introduced. 


342  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Under  this  system  the  cream  was  raised  upon  the  farm, 
usually  by  a  cold  deep -setting  process,  and  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  creamery,  visiting  the  different  farms, 
skimmed  the  cream,  and  left  the  skimmed  milk  upon 
the  farm.  Later  on,  during  the  decade  beginning  in 
1880,  the  centrifugal  separator  was  introduced,  and  at 
the  present  time  by  far  the  larger  number  of  but- 
ter factories  are  operated  upon  this  system.  As  be- 
tween the  factory  system  or  the  private  dairy  in  the 
manufacture  of  dairy  products,  both  have  their  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages.  The  advantages  of  the 
factory  system  are  so  great  that  practically  all  of  the 
cheese  is  made  in  this  way,  the  small  amount  made 
upon  farms  and  in  private  dairies  being  almost 
wholly  made  for  domestic  or  strictly  local  consump- 
tion. These  advantages  in  the  main  are  the  saving 
of  labor  and  the  greater  uniformity  of  product.  It 
requires  no  more  time  and  but  slightly  more  labor 
to  make  six  thousand  pounds  of  milk  into  cheese 
than  six  hundred.  Few  private  dairies  produce  more 
than  the  latter  amount,  so  that  the  combination  of 
ten  men  in  a  factory  will  result  in  saving  the  labor 
of  at  least  five  men  in  the  manufacture  of  the  pro- 
duct. Then  the  cost  of  building  the  proper  curing 
room  is  much  less  under  the  factory  system  than  in 
the  private ,  dairy.  Conditions  of  temperature  and 
moisture  can  readily  be  secured  for  a  large  amount 
of  cheese  cured  together,  that  would  practically  be  im- 
possible if  the  same  amount  of  cheese  was  distrib- 
uted in  ten  or  a  dozen  parcels  and  cured  separately. 
In  associated  butter  making,  while  the  same  ad- 


Dairy   Legislation  343 

vantages  hold  true  as  in  cheese  making,  they  do  not 
manifest  themselves  to  the  same  degree.  There  is  un- 
doubtedly a  considerable  saving  of  labor  and  a  vastly 
more  uniform  product  where  the  milk  of  many  patrons 
is  manufactured  into  butter  in  a  well  equipped 
creamery  under  skilful  supervision,  but  it  is  scarcely 
possible  for  a  creamery  handling  the  milk  of  many 
cows,  scattered  over  a  wide  area  and  under  the  care 
of  many  persons,  to  make  butter  of  so  uniformly  fine 
quality  as  is  possible  where  not  only  the  milk,  from 
the  time  it  is  drawn  until  the  finished  product  is 
sent  to  market,  but  the  care  and  food  of  the  cows 
as  well,  are  under  the  same  skilful  supervision. 
One  of  the  chief  advantages  of  both  the  cheese  and 
butter  factory  system  is  that  it  removes  from  the 
farm,  and  particularly  from  the  farm  home,  a  large 
amount  of  drudgery  that  in  far  too  many  cases  fell 
upon  those  least  able  to  bear  it,  the  women  of  the 
household ;  so  that  while  the  butter  of  the  very  high- 
est quality  will  probably  for  many  years  to  come  be 
made  in  relatively  small  individual  or  private  dairies 
upon  farms,  still  the  factory  system  is  increasing 
very  rapidly,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  until  pro- 
portionately as  much  butter  as  cheese  is  made  in 
factories. 

Dairy  legislation. — Dairy  legislation  in  the  United 
States  has  had  two  main  objects.  First,  to  secure 
to  consumers  of  milk  an  unadulterated  product.  This 
has  resulted  in  the  establishment  in  many  states  of 
arbitrary  legal  standards  for  the  quality  of  milk,  and 
in  others  the  passage  of  general  laws  prohibiting  the 


344  Milk    and   Its    Products 

adulteration  of  milk  in  any  way  (See  Appendix  C). 
Still,  nearly  one -third  of  the  states  have  no  laws  what- 
ever in  regard  to  the  sale  of  milk,  though  most  of 
the  large  cities  in  these  states  have  adopted  municipal 
regulations  of  the  same  general  nature  as  the  state 
laws. 

The  second  object  of  dairy  legislation  has  been  to 
guarantee  the  quality  of  a  dairy  product  or  to  pre- 
vent the  sale  of  a  spurious  product  for  a  genuine  one. 
The  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  artificial  but- 
ter or  oleomargarine  has  led  to  both  national  and  state 
regulation.  The  manufacture  of  oleomargarine,  and 
particularly  its  sale  as  genuine  butter,  caused  a  great 
injury  to  the  manufacturers  of  the  genuine  product, 
both  in  the  sale  of  their  goods  and  the  prices  re- 
ceived for  the  same.  The  state  of  New  York  was 
one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  very  first,  to  enact  regu- 
lations controlling  the  sale  of  the  imitation  product, 
and  in  1884  passed  a  law  prohibiting  the  manufac- 
ture and  sale  of  imitation  butter  within  the  limits  of 
the  state.  This  law  was  the  subject  of  much  litiga- 
tion, but  has  been  upheld  by  the  state  and  national 
courts.  It  has  been  pretty  thoroughly  enforced,  and 
is  still  in  operation.  In  1886  the  National  Govern- 
ment passed  a  law  imposing  an  income  tax  of  two 
cents  per  pound  upon  all  imitation  butter  made  in 
the  country,  and  levying  special  license  taxes  upon 
those  engaged  in  its  manufacture  and  sale.  This  has 
resulted  in  a  measurable  control  of  the  product,  and 
with  the  supplemental  laws  that  have  been  passed  in 
a  large  number  of  the  states  the  matter  is  now  under 


Dairy   Legislation  345 

careful  and  strict  regulation.  These  laws  have  not 
resulted,  as  was  fondly  hoped  by  many  dairymen,  in 
absolutely  stopping  the  manufacture  of  imitation  but- 
ter, but  have  resulted  in  a  great  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  the  imitation  goods  and  in  securing  inno- 
cent purchasers  against  fraud  in  palming  off  upon 
them  a  spurious  for  a  genuine  article.  At  the  same 
time,  the  cheaper  imitation  butter  has  crowdei  out  of 
the  market  the  poorer  grades  of  genuine  butter,  and 
so  improved  the  general  average  quality  of  genuine 
butter. 

More  recently  the  manufacture  of  so-called  filled 
cheese  has  been  regulated  in  the  same  way,  by  the 
passage  by  the  National  Congress,  in  1896,  of  a 
law  similar  to  the  oleomargarine  act,  placing  a  rev- 
enue tax  upon  all  filled  cheese  manufactured,  and  a 
license  tax  upon  the  manufacturers  and  dealers. 
This  filled  cheese  is  made  from  skimmed  milk,  to 
which  has  been  added  a  certain  amount  of  neutral 
animal  fat. 

Within  the  past  twenty  years  the  practice  of  mak- 
ing cheese  from  skimmed  or  partially  skimmed  milk 
has  spread  widely  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
result  has  been  that  the  reputation  of  American  cheese 
has  greatly  fallen  in  the  market,  both  abroad  and  at 
home.  A  remedy  has  been  sought  by  the  passage  in 
several  states,  notably  New  York  and  Wisconsin,  of 
laws  authorizing  the  use,  on  cheese  made  from  whole 
milk,  of  "State  Brands"  guaranteeing  the  quality  of 
cheese  so  branded.  While  cheese -makers  were  at 
first  not  inclined  to  take  advantage  of  these  laws, 


346  Milk   and   Its   Products 

the  "  State  Brands "  are  now  extensively  used  with 
very  gratifying  results  as  to  the  reputation  of  cheese 
so  branded  in  the  general  markets. 

Recently  legislative  control  has  been  sought  con- 
cerning still  another  product.  A  large  business 
has  grown  up  in  gathering  together,  usually  from 
country  merchants  who  have  taken  the  goods  in 
trade,  large  amounts  of  poorly  made  butter  and 
butter  that  has  been  spoiled  or  partially  spoiled. 
The  butter  so  collected  is  all  melted  up  together, 
the  solid  impurities  filtered  out  and  the  fat  clarified 
by  various  processes  that  are  kept  more  or  less 
secret.  The  clarified  fat  is  then  churned  with  fresh 
skimmed  milk  and  the  resulting  butter  colored, 
salted  and  worked  in  the  usual  way.  In  some  cases 
the  better  grades  of  butter  collected  from  country 
stores  are  merely  reworked  and  uniformly  colored. 
All  such  butter,  whatever  the  treatment  it  has 
received,  is  known  as  renovated  or  process  butter, 
and  is  sold  under  the  names  "factory"  and  "imita- 
tion creamery."  It  is  very  much  improved  over  the 
original  butter  from  which  it  was  prepared,  which 
is  often  entirely  unsalable  as  butter,  but  it  is  dis- 
tinctly inferior  to  the  better  grades  of  fresh  butter 
and  injures  their  sale  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
For  this  reason  several  states  have  passed  laws 
requiring  that  all  butter  that  has  been  treated  as 
described  shall  be  distinctly  branded  "Renovated" 
butter. 

Dairy  markets. — In  no  one  particular  has  the  dairy 
industry  developed  in  recent   years  more  than  in  the 


"Process"    Butter  347 

line  of  production  throughout  the  year.  Formerly 
almost  the  whole  product  was  made  during  the  warm 
months.  This  is  measurably  so  still  in  the  case  of 
cheese,  but  the  demand  has  been  constantly  increas- 
ing for  fresh  butter  the  year  round,  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  a  fairly  large  proportion  of  the  whole  output 
is  made  during  the  winter  months,  the  fresh  butter 
commanding  anywhere  from  two  to  ten  cents  per 
pound  more  than  equally  good  butter  that  has  been 
held  in  storage  for  several  months.  Very^  recently, 
with  improvements  in  the  methods  of  refrigeration 
and  cold  storage,  the  price  of  stored  butter  of  the 
highest  quality  is  reaching  nearer  to  that  of  the 
fresh  made  goods,  but  the  best  consumers  still  con- 
tinue to  call  for  a  fresh  article. 


APPENDIX 

A.   USEFUL  RULES  AND  TESTS 

COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETER  SCALES 

Centigrade  Scale — Freezing  point  of  water   =          0 
Boiling  point  of  water      =      100 

^ 

Difference  100  degrees. 

Fahrenheit  Scale — Freezing  point  of  water  =       32 
Boiling  point  of  water     =     212 

Difference  180  degrees 
100  degrees  C.  =    180  degrees  F. 
5  =       9 


To  CHANGE  DEGREES  CENTIGRADE  TO  EQUIVALENT  DEGREES 
FAHRENHEIT 

Multiply  by  f  and  add  32;  e.  g.:   65°  C.  X  I  =  117  +  32  =  149°  F. 


To  CHANGE  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT  TO  EQUIVALENT  DEGREES 
CENTIGRADE 

Subtract  32  and  multiply  by  I;  e.  g.:  98°  F.  —  32  =  66  X  ¥  =  37° 
—  C. 

To  FIND  THE  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY     BY  THE  "BOARD  OF 
HEALTH"  LACTOMETER 

Multiply  the  reading  by  .29,  divide  by  1,000,  and  add  I.;  e.  g.: 
Observed  reading,  94  X  .29  =  27.26  -*-  1,000  =  .02726  +  1.  =  1.027  + 
specific  gravity. 

(349) 


350  MM   and  Its   Product 

To  CHANGE  "BOARD  OF  HEALTH"  LACTOMETER  DEGREES  TO 
EQUIVALENT  QUEVENNE  DEGREES 

Multiply  the  "Board  of  Health"  reading  by  .29;  e.  g.:  "Board  of 
Health"  reading,  105  X  .29  =  30.45  =  30+  Quevenne  reading. 

To  CHANGE  QUEVENNE  LACTOMETER  DEGREES  TO  EQUIVALENT 
"BOARD  OF  HEALTH"  DEGREES 

Divide  the  observed  Quevenne  reading  by  .29;  e.  g.:  Quevenne 
reading,  34  -5-  .29  =  117.  +  ordinary  or  "Board  of  Health"  reading. 

TEMPERATURE  CORRECTION  FOR  LACTOMETER 

For  Quevenne  lactometer,  .1  lactometer  degree  for  each  degree  of 
temperature  F. 

For  ordinary  or  "Board  of  Health"  lactometer,  1  lactometer  degree 
for  each  3  degrees  of  temperature  F. 

To  be  added  if  the  temperature  is  higher,  or  subtracted  if  it  is  lower 
than  the  standard  of  the  lactometer. 

To  be  used  only  when  the  temperature  variation  is  less  than  10 
degrees  from  the  standard  of  the  lactometer. 

To  ESTIMATE  SOLIDS  NOT  FAT,  AND  TOTAL  SOLIDS,  FROM  THE 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  PER  CENT  OF  FAT 

The  following  formulae  may  be  used: 
Babcock  (1)  S  =  L  *g7  f 

Babcock  (2)  S  =  -j-  +  .2  f 

Richmond  (3)   T  =   -^-  +  -y  +  .14 

In  the  above  L  =  corrected  Quevenne  lactometer  reading,  f  =  per 
cent  of  fat,  S  =  solids  not  fat;  T  =  total  solids;  solids  not  fat  + 
fat  =  total  solids. 

To  apply  the  above  formulse,  if  the  percentage  of  fat  is  4.2  and 
the  lactometer  reading  at  60°  F.  is  32,  then 
ms  _  L  +  -7*     o  _  32  +  .7  (4.2) 

3.8      '    fe  3.8 

.7  of  4.2  =  2.94  +  32  =  34.94  -~  3.8  =  9.19  =  solids  not  fat. 
9.19  +  4.2  =  13.39  =  total  solids, 


Useful   Rules   and    Tests  351 


(2)  S  =  -4     +  .2  f,  S  =  -4-  +  2.  (4.2) 

32  -r-  4  =  8,  .2  (4.2)  =  .84,  8  +  .84  =  8.84  =  solids  not  fat. 
8.84  +  4.2  =  13.04  =  total  solids. 


32  -f-  4  =  8,  6  X  4.2  =  25.2  -=-  5  =  5.04. 
8  +  5.04  +  .14  =  13.18  =  total  solids. 

LITMUS  TEST 

A  method  of  determining  whether  a  liquid  is  acid  or  alkaline. 
In  acid  solutions,  blue  litmus  turns  red. 
In  alkaline  solutions,  red  litmus  turns  blue. 

PHENOLPHTHALEIN  TEST 

A  method  of  determining  whether  a  liquid  is  acid  or  alkaline. 

In  acid  solutions,  if  phenolphthalein  is  added  no  change  in  color  is 
produced. 

In  alkaline  solutions,  if  phenolphthalein  is  added  the  liquid  turns 
pink. 

To  DETERMINE  THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  LACTIC  ACID  IN  MILK  BY  THE  USE 

OF  DECINORMAL  ALKALI,  OR  FARRINGTON'S  ALKALINE 

TABLETS 

Each  c.  c.  decinormal  alkali  neutralizes  .009  grams  lactic  acid. 
Therefore,  multiply  the  number  of  c.  c.  decinormal  alkali  used  by  .009 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  grams  of  milk  taken.  (Grams 
=  c.  c.  X  1.032);  e.  g.:  20  c.  c.  of  milk  require  9  c.  c.  decinormal  alkali 
to  neutralize  the  acid.  The  per  cent  of  acid  is  — 

.009  X  9  =  .081  grams  lactic  acid. 

.081  -r-  20.64  =  .0039,  or  .39  %. 

Each  alkaline  tablet  =  3.8  c.  c.  decinormal  alkali.  Each  tablet 
is  dissolved  in  10  c.  c.  water.  Each  c.  c.  tablet  solution  =  .38  c.  c. 
decinormal  alkali.  Therefore,  each  c.  c.  tablet  solution  will  neutralize 
.009  X  .38  =  .0034  grams  lactic  acid.  Therefore,  multiply  the  number 
of  c.  c.  of  tablet  solution  used  by  .0034  and  divide  by  the  number  of 
grams  of  milk  taken  (grams  =  c.  c  X  1.032);  e.  g.: 

20  c.  c.  of  cream  require  35  c.  c.  of  tablet  solution  to  neutralize  the 
acid.  The  per  cent  of  acid  is  — 

.0034  X  35  =  .119  grams  lactic  acid. 

.119  -r-  20.64  =  .0058,  or  .58%. 


352  Milk   and   Its   Products 


To  DETERMINE  LACTIC  ACID,  USING  17.6  c.  c.  OF  MILK  OR  CREAM 

Instead  of  determining  lactic  acid  as  described  above,  it  is  often 
more  convenient  to  make  the  tablet  solution  of  such  a  strength  that 
1  c.  c.  of  the  solution  will  neutralize  .01  per  cent  of  lactic  acid  in  the 
amount  of  milk  or  cream  taken.  Since  a  17.6  c.  c.  pipette  is  always 
found  where  there  is  a  Babcock  testing  .outfit,  17.6  c.  c.  is  a  very  con- 
venient assay,  as  it  does  not  necessitate  procuring  an  additional 
pipette.  If  5  Farrington  tablets  are  dissolved  in  97  c.  c.  of  water  the 
solution  will  be  of  such  a  strength  that  each  c.  c.  of  solution 
will  neutralize  .01  per-  cent  of  lactic  acid  in  17.6  c.  c.  of  milk,  and  the 
total  number  of  c.  c.  used  will  indicate  the  amount  of  lactic  acid  present 
in  hundredths  of  one  per  cent;  e.  g.: 

5  tablets  are  dissolved  in  97  c.  c.  water,  and  35  c.  c.  of  the  solu- 
tion are  required  to  neutralize  the  lactic  acid  in  17.6  c.  c.  of  cream; 
the  percentage  of  lactic  acid  present  is  therefore  .35  per  cent. 

To  SELECT  MILK  FOR  PASTEURIZATION 

Dissolve  any  convenient  number  of  Farrington  alkaline  tablets  in 
an  equal  number  of  ounces  of  water.  Provide  any  convenient  small 
measure,  and  to  one  measure  of  milk  add  two  measures  of  the  pre- 
pared tablet  solution.  If  the  milk  remains  uncolored,  it  contains 
more  than  .2  of  1  per  cent  of  acid,  and  is  too  sour  to  be  safely 
used.  If  it  is  colored  pink,  it  contains  less  than  .2  of  1  per  cent  of 
acid,  and  may  safely  be  used  for  pasteurizing  or  sterilizing.  Or,  the 
tablet  solution  will  be  of  very  nearly  the  same  strength,  and  may  be 
used  in  the  same  way,  if  3  tablets  are  dissolved  in  90  c.  c.  of  water. 

To  PREPARE  VISCOGEN  FOR  RESTORING  THE  CONSISTENCY 
OF  PASTEURIZED  CREAM 

Two  and  one-half  parts  by  weight  of  a  good  quality  of  granulated 
sugar  are  dissolved  in  five  parts  of  water,  and  one  part  of  quick  lime 
gradually  slaked  in  three  parts  of  water.  The  resulting  milk  of  lime 
is  strained  and  added  to  the  sugar  solution.  The  mixture  should  be 
agitated  at  frequent  intervals,  and  after  two  or  three  hours  allowed 
to  settle  until  the  clear  liquid  can  be  decanted  off.  This  clear  liquid 
(viscogen)  is  the  part  used  and  should  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles, 
as  it  loses  strength  and  becomes  dark-colored  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
The  darkening  in  color,  however,  does  not  impair  its  usefulness. 


Useful   Rules   and    Tests 


353 


To  STANDARDIZE  CREAM  AND  MILK  (Pearson) 

'When  cream  is  being  sent  to  the  city  trade  or  used  for  certain  other 
purposes,  it  is  "of  ten  desired  to  have  it  contain  a  certain  percentage  of 
fat  and  the  same  each  day.  It  is  difficult  to  adjust  a  separator  to  skim 
cream  always  of  the  same  richness  and  it  has  become  a  more  or  less 
common  practice  to  skim  a  heavy  cream  and  "standarize"  it.  This  is 
done  by  mixing  with  it  enough  of  the  skimmed  milk  that  has  just  been 
removed,  or  whole  milk  or  thinner  cream,  to  reduce  the  fat  content 
to  the  proper  point. 

The  following  is  an  easy  and  accurate  way  to  determine  the  quan- 
tity of  skimmed  milk,  milk,  or  thin  cream  that  must  be  added  to  a 
rich  cream  to  produce  a  cream  of  required  richness  or  fat  content: 

Draw  a  rectangle  and  write  at  the  two  left-hand  corners  the  per- 
centages of  fat  in  the  fluids  to  be  mixed,  and  in  the  center,  place  the 
required  percentage.  At  the  upper  right-hand  corner  put  the  number 
which  represents  the  difference  between  the  two  numbers  standing 
in  line  with  it,  i.  e.,  the  number  in  the  center  and  the  one  at  the  lower 
left-hand  corner.  At  the  lower  right-hand  corner  put  the  number  that 
represents  the  difference  between  the  two  numbers  in  line  with  it.  Now 
let  the  upper  right-hand  number  refer  to  the  upper  left  and  the  lower 
right-hand  to  the  lower  left,  then  the  two  right-hand  numbers  show  the 
relative  quantities  of  the  fluids  represented  at  the  left-hand  corners 
that  must  be  combined  to  give  a  fluid  of  the  desired  standard  which 
is  represented  in  the  center. 

For  example,  suppose  we  have  cream  testing  39  per  cent  fat,  and  we 
wish  to  standardize  this  to  a  30  per  cent  cream  by  the  use  of  milk 
testing,  5  per  cent  fat.  Following  the  directions  we  have  this  diagram — 


39 


30 


25 


9 


which  shows  at  once  that  39  per  cent  cream  and  5  per  cent  milk  must 
be  combined  in  the  proportion  of  25  to  9  in  order  to  produce  30  per 
cent  cream.  If  we  wish  to  use  50  pounds  of  39  per  cent  cream,  then  18 
pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk  must  be  added,  as  is  shown  by  this  proportion. 

25  :  9  ::  50  :  18 


354 


Milk   and    J/.s    Products 


Suppose  we  wish  to  find  the  proper  amounts  of  the  rich  cream  and 
milk  to  produce  170  pounds  of  30  per  cent  cream: 

If  we  take  25  pounds  of  the  39  per  cent  cream  and  9  pounds  of  the 
5  per  cent  milk,  as  is  shown  by  the  diagram,  we  will  have  a  total  of  34 
pounds,  but  we  want  a  total  of  170  pounds,  or  five  times  as  much;  then 
we  must  take  five  times  as  much  of  each  of  the  ingredients,  or  125 
pounds  of  39  per  cent  cream  and  45  pounds  of  the  milk,  as  is  shown  by 
these  proportions: 

34  :  25  ::  170  :  125 
34  :    9  ::  170  :    45 

In  the  same  manner  milks  of  different  quality,  may  be  standard- 
ized without  going  to  the  trouble  "of  mixing  them  all  together  in  one 
large  vat. 

If  it  is  wanted  to  mix  the  milks  from  two  dairies  testing  4.9  per  cent 
fat  and  3.5  per  cent  to  produce  a  4.6  per  cent  milk,  the  diagram  shows 
these  milks  must  be  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  1.1  to  .3  or  11  to  3. 
Thus: 

4.9 


3.5 


4.6 


1.1 


.3 


If  we  have  120  pounds  of  the  4.9  per  cent  milk  we  must  mix  with 
it  32.7  pounds  of  3.5  per  cent  milk,  as  is  shown  by  this  proportion: 
11:3::  120  :  32.7 

To  PREPARE  ARTIFICIAL  "STARTER"  OR  FERMENT  FOR  RIPENING  MILK 
OR  CREAM* 

A  starter  is  a  material  containing  desirable  bacteria  for  the  ripen- 
ing or  souring  of  dairy  products.  Originally  it  may  be  a  "commercial 
culture"  or  it  may  be  taken  from  a  sample  of  clean  sound  sour  milk 
or  buttermilk  from  any  local  source.  This  material  in  the  commercial 
culture  may  be  a  preparation  of  meat  broth,  milk,  or  other  substances. 
It  may  be  propagated  by  the  dairyman  or  creameryman  in  skimmed 
milk  or  whole  milk  and,  in  unusual  cases,  in  other  media. 


*From  circular  No.  10,  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Useful   Rtiles    and    Tests  355 


STEPS    IN    PROPAGATION 

1.  Take  three  one-quart  milk  bottles  or  fruit  jars.    Glass  is  prefer- 
able, as  it  allows  the  operator  to  see  when  all  of  the  dirt  has  been 
removed,  and  the  condition  of  the  curd  can  easily  be  inspected  through 
the  transparent  wall.    Three  bottles  should  be  employed,  for  in  heating 
glass  is  likely  to  break;  and  it  is  always  well  to  have  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  containers  from  which  to  choose. 

2.  Use  fresh,  clean  milk,  which  must  have  a  nice  flavor.    It  may  be 
either  whole  milk  or  skimmed  milk.     Usually  it  is  advisable  to  use 
whole  milk,  for  it  is  easier  to  choose  desirable  samples  before  milk  has 
passed  through  the  separator  than  afterward. 

3.  Fill  the  containers  one-half  to  two-thirds  full  of  milk.    If  they  are 
filled  full,  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  contamination  from  the  covers,  which 
are  hard  to  sterilize  when  the  pasteurization  is  done  in  hot  water.   Protect 
the  containers  with  regular  covers  (caps  or  tops)  or  with  glass  tumblers. 

4.  Pasteurize  by  heating  to  180°  to  200°  F.  for  30  minutes  or  longer. 
A  temperature  of  150°  F.  kills  all  sporeless  bacteria.    Higher  tempera- 
tures up  to  212°  F.  do  not  kill  the  spores,  but  they  are  so  weakened  by 
the  higher  heat  that  they  germinate  more  slowly  and  their  harmful 
effect  is  retarded.    This  fact  and  the  results  of  experience  indicate  a 
temperature  of  about  185°  F.  to  200°  F.  as  best.    The  heating  and  cool- 
ing can  be  done  in  cans  immersed  in  water.    Stirring  hastens  the  pro- 
cesses, but  is  not  necessary  when  the  heating  surface  is  not  hotter  than 
about  200°  F.    Where  the  heating  is  done  by  steam,  stirring  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  scorching. 

After  heating,  cool  to  a  ripening  temperature  of  60°  to  75°  F.  Pas- 
teurization may  be  accomplished  by  tying  a  string  about  the  necks  of 
the  bottles  and  suspending  them  in  a  pail  or  vat  heated  by  steam,  or 
in  a  kettle  or  dish  heated  on  a  stove,.  (If  pasteurized  over  a  fire,  do  not 
let  bottles  rest  on  the  bottom  of  receptacle.)  Other  supports  may  be 
used  to  keep  the  containers  from  tipping  over.  The  temperature  should 
be  raised  and  reduced  slowly  to  prevent  breaking  the  glass. 

5.  After  pasteurization  the  milk  is  ready  for  inoculation.    Inoculate 
in  a  quiet  place  where  the  wind  cannot  blow  dirt  and  bacteria  into  this 
clean  seed  bed.    With  dry  fingers  remove  the  cover  and  place  it  in  a 
bacterially  clean  spot,  as  in  a  recently  scalded  dipper.    Pour  in  all  of 
the  commercial  culture,  or  2  to  10  per  cent  from  the  previous  day's 
culture.    Be  sure  that  the  curd  from  the  previous  day  is  well  broken. 
After  inoculation,   shake  the  freshly    inoculated  sample  to  distribute 
the  bacteria. 


356  Milk   and   Its   Products 

6.  Incubate  at  about  60°  to  75°  F.    The  first  inoculation  from  the 
commercial  culture  should  be  incubated  at  about  70°  to  85°  F.    The 
small  inoculations  require  higher  temperatures  than  the  large  inocu- 
lations.    By  experience  an  operator  can  soon  learn  what  inoculation 
and  temperature  to  use  to  ripen  his  starter  in  a  given  time.    Usually  a 
6  to  8  per  cent  inoculation  will  ripen  a  starter  in  twelve  hours  at  about 
65°  F.    The  temperature  must  be  fairly  constant. 

7.  The  starter  is  ripe  when  a  curd  forms.    This  curd  should  be  soft 
and  like  custard  in  appearance.    It  should  not  be  hard  and  firm. 

8.  After  the  starter  is  ripe,  hold  it  at  50°  F.  or  a  few  degrees  lower 
until  time  to  use.    For  best  results  a  starter  should  not  be  held  longer 
than  a  few  hours.    However,  it  may  be  held  two  or  three  days  and  not 
be  badly  over-ripened.    Do  not  shake  the  starter  before  putting  it  in 
storage. 

9.  Upon   examination   the   curd   should   be   smooth   and   compact, 
without  gas  pockets.    Gas  shows  the  presence  of  undesirable  bacteria. 
A  hard,  lumpy  curd,  whey,  and  high  acid  show  the  over-ripe  condition, 
which  is  very  undesirable.    After  the  condition  of  the  curd  is  noted, 
shake  well  to  break  it  into  a  smooth,  lumpless  condition.    Shake  with 
a  rotary  motion,  being  careful  not  to  touch  the  cap  for  fear  of  con- 
tamination.   Now  smell  and  taste  it,  but  never  from  the  starter  con- 
tainer.   Always  pour  some  of  the  curd  into  a  spoon  or  cup,  and  then 
replace  the  cover  immediately.    After  smelling,  it  is  best  to  put  at  least 
a  teaspoonful  into  the  mouth.    Seek  for  a  desirable,  clean,  mild,  acid 
flavor.     The  first  propagation  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  disagreeable 
because  of  the  presence  of  some  of  the  original  medium. 

GENERAL   DIRECTIONS 

In  a  creamery  or  a  large  dairy  it  is  necessary  to  carry  more  than  a 
pint  or  a  quart  of  starter.  Along  with  the  mother  starter  a  second 
starter  of  ten  to  fifty  pounds  may  be  carried.  After  the  mother  starter 
in  the  glass  container  is  inoculated,  the  remainder  of  the  previous  day's 
mother  starter  is  poured  into  the  second  starter,  and  the  cream  is  inocu- 
lated from  the  second  starter.  In  large  creameries,  third  and  fourth 
starters  are  carried.  Care  should  be  taken  in  pasteurization  not  to  cook 
the  milk  in  these  large  amounts.  In  the  mother  starter  this  makes  lit- 
tle difference. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  a  larger  inoculation  from  starter  to  cream 
than  from  starter  to  starter,  because  the  seed  bed  is  not  so  well  pre- 
pared. The  inoculation  of  the  cream  may  vary  from  8  to  50  per  cent. 


Useful   Rules   and    Tests  357 

Usually  it  is  necessary  to  propagate  the  mother  starter  two  or  three 
times  before  the  flavor  of  the  commercial  culture,  which  is  often  very 
disagreeable,  will  disappear. 

A  starter  may  be  carried  two  to  four  weeks  before  it  goes  "off." 
Often  it  is  carried  several  months,  and  often  less  than  two  weeks.  This 
depends  almost  altogether  on  the  carefulness  of  the  operator. 

To  DETECT  ORDINARY  FERMENTATIONS  OR  "TAINTS"  IN  MILK 

Procure  as  many  test  tubes  one  inch  in  diameter  by  five  inches  long 
as  there  are  samples  of  milk  to  be  tested,  and  a  suitable  rack  to  hold 
them  in  an  upright  position.  Wash  and  rinse  the  tubes  thoroughly  and 
sterilize  them  by  boiling  in  water  for  thirty  minutes  or  bv,  exposure  to 
live  steam  in  a  sterilizing  oven  for  fifteen  minutes.  After  sterilizing 
they  may  be  allowed  to  drain  dry  and  then  should  be  kept  covered  till 
wanted.  When  wanted  for  use  the  tubes  should  be  filled  one-half  to 
two-thirds  full  with  the  suspected  milk,  closed  with  a  piece  of  glass  or 
plug  of  cotton  and  placed  in  the  rack  in  water  kept  as  nearly  constant 
as  possible  at  100°  F.  In  from  three  to  four  hours  the  samples  may  be 
inspected  without  shaking  or  stirring.  Gaseous  fermentations  will  be 
manifested  by  the  appearance  of  bubbles  of  gas  upon  the  surface  or 
throughout  the  mass,  souring  fermentations  by  coagulation  of  the  milk 
and  putrefactive  fermentations  or  "taints",  by  various  odors  manifest 
to  the  nose  when  the  covers  are  removed.  The  samples  should  be  kept 
for  at  lejist  twenty-four  hours  and  examinations  made  at  frequent 
intervals. 

THE  WISCONSIN  CURD  TEST 

This  test  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  fermentation  test 
described  above,  and  is  made  as  follows:  Procure  as  many  covered 
pint  glass  jars  as  there  are  samples  of  milk  to  be  tested  and  clean  and 
sterilize  them  as  described  above.  Fill  each  jar  two-thirds  full  of  the 
milk  to  be  tested,  label  them  plainly  and  put  them  up  to  the  neck  in 
a  tub  or  vat  of  water  heated  to  98°  F.  When  the  milk  has  reached  the 
temperature  of  the  water  add  ten  drops  of  rennet  extract  to  each  jar, 
and  mix  it  with  the  milk  by  shaking  the  jar.  Allow  the  jars  to  stand 
until  the  curd  is  firm  and  then  cut  the  curd  finely  with  a  case  knife. 
When  the  curd  has  settled  pour  off  the  whey  and  allow  the  curd  to 
settle  again  till  a  second  portion  of  whey  can  be  removed.  The  best 
tests  are  made  when  the  removal  of  whey  is  as  complete  as  possible. 
The  jars  containing  the  curd  are  then  covered  and  again  placed  in  the 


358  Milk   and   Its   Products 

tub  and  the  temperature  maintained  as  nearly  as  possible  at  98°  F.  for 
six  to  twelve  hours,  when  they  may  be  examined.  A  solid,  firm  curd, 
without  disagreeable  odor  or  flavor,  shows  that  the  milk  is  pure  and 
clean  and  has  been  properly  handled.  Impurities  in  the  different  sam- 
ples are  indicated  by  the  presence  of  small  round  holes  (gas  cells)  seen 
in  the  curd  when  it  is  cut  across  with  a  knife,  or  by  various  disagree- 
able odors  that  may  be  detected  when  the  covers  to  the  jars  are  removed. 
The  apparatus  for  this  test  in  an  improved  form  is  now  furnished  by 
most  of  the  dairy  supply  houses. 

MONRAD  RENNET  TEST 

This  test  is  figured  and  described  on  page  241.  It  is  used  as  fol- 
lows: To  determine  the  ripeness  of  milk  for  cheese  making,  put  5  c. 
c.  commercial  rennet  in  a  50  c.  c.  flask  and  fill  with  water  to  the  mark. 
Put  200  c.  c.  of  milk  at  86°  F.  in  a  suitable  tin  cup,  and  allow  it  to  float 
in  the  vat.  Add  5  c.  c.  of  the  diluted  rennet,  and  note  carefully  the  time 
required  for  the  first  appearance  of  coagulation.  The  time  required 
will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  milk  and  rennet  used,  the  strength 
of  the  rennet,  the  temperature  and  the  ripeness  of  the  milk.  All  except 
the  last  remaining  constant  from  day  to  day,  the  degree  of  ripeness  is 
measured  by  the  time  required  for  coagulation.  The  riper  the  milk  the 
shorter  the  time;  ordinarily  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  minutes  will 
be  required.  The  diluted  rennet  must  be  made  fresh  every  day. 

MABSCHALL  RENNET  TEST 

For  a  description  and  cut  of  this  test,  see  page  242.  Directions  for 
its  use:  To  determine  the  ripeness  of  milk  for  cheese  making,  fill  the 
vessel  to  the  0  mark  with  milk,  add  a  pipette  full  of  commercial  ren- 
net, stir  quickly,  and  place  in  such  a  position  that  the  milk  may  flow 
freely  from  the  orifice.  When  the  milk  ceases  to  flow,  note  the  number 
of  graduations  exposed.  The  riper  the  milk  the  less  the  number  of 
exposed  graduations. 

HOT  IRON  TEST 

A  test  used  to  indicate  the  maturity  of  curd  in  cheese  making.  The 
maturity  is  usually  coincident  with  the  amount  of  lactic  acid  present, 
so  that  the  test  is  commonly  called  the  hot  iron  test  for  acid. 

The  test  is  made  by  heating  a  bar  of  iron  just  short  of  redness,  or 
so  that  it  will  hiss  readily.  A  mass  of  curd  is  squeezed  in  the  hand  till 
ail  the  whey  possible  is  pressed  out.  The  curd  is  then  applied  to  the 


Useful   Rules   and    Tests  359 

iron;  the  surface  of  the  curd,  melted  by  the  heat,  sticks  to  the  iron, 
and  the  remainder  is  carefully  and  gently  pulled  away.  If  the  curd  is 
very  immature,  the  melted  part  readily  separates  from  that  not  affected 
by  the  heat,  but  when  more  mature,  numerous  fine  threads  of  casein 
are  drawn  out  when  the  two  parts  are  separated,  the  length  of  these 
threads  depending  upon  the  maturity  of  the  curd,  and  commonly  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  acid,  thus,  J-inch  acid,  2-inch  acid,  etc. 

To  CALIBRATE  OR  TEST  THE  ACCURACY  OF  GRADUATION  OF 
GLASSWARE  USED  IN  THE  BABCOCK  TEST 

Observe  that  the  graduations  are  at  equal  distances  apart.  Fill 
the  bottle  carefully  to  the  0  point  with  clean  rain  water,  wipe  out  the 
neck  carefully,  and  add  from  a  pipette  or  burette  2  c.  c.  water.  It  should 
fill  the  bottle  exactly  to  the  10  point.  Or,  weigh  the  bottle  filled  with 
clean  rain  water  to  the  0  point  with  delicate  balances,  fill  to  the  10 
point  and-  weigh  again.  The  difference  in  weight  should  be  2  grams. 
Or,  into  a  dry,  empty  bottle  put  2  c.  c.  or  27.18  grams  mercury,  insert 
a  tight-fitting  plug  carefully  to  the  10  point,  and  invert  the  bottle;  the 
mercury  should  just  reach  to  the  0  point.  The  pipette  should  hold  17.6 
grams  of  water,  or  239  grams  of  mercury.  Any  piece  showing  a  dis- 
crepancy of  2  per  cent  should  be  discarded. 

To  TEST  BUTTER  OR  CHEESE  WITH  THE  BABCOCK  TEST 

Weigh  out  on  a  balance  sensitive  to  .1  gram,  from  4  to  8  grams  of 
the  substance  to  be  tested.    Divide  into  small  pieces  and  put  into  an 
ordinary  test  bottle,   or  bottle  with  detachable  neck,  with  about   10 
c.  c.  of  warm  water.    Add  the  acid,  and  complete  the  test  in  the  ordinary 
way.    The  percentage  of  fat  will  be  found  by  the  following  proportion: 
Weight  of  sample:  18  ::  observed  reading  :  per  cent  of  fat;  or 
18  X  observed  reading 

TTT — ~, ', =  per  cent  of  fat; 

weight  of  sample 

e.  g.:  4.8  grams  of  cheese  tested,  showed  a  reading  of  9.2  per  cent 
fat  in  the  test  bottle.  The  cheese  contained: 

18  X  9.2 

-— : =  34.5  per  cent  fat. 

4.o 

THE  CORNELL  BUTTER  MOISTURE-TEST 

The  apparatus  used  in  the  Cornell  moisture-test  is  an  alcohol  lamp, 
stand,  asbestos  sheet,  hot-pan  lifter,  aluminum  cup  for  holding  the 


360  Milk   and   Its   Products 

sample,  and  a  special  moisture  scale.  The  scale  is  specially  adapted 
for  moisture  work,  but  may  be  used  as  a  cream  scale  in  operating  the 
Babcock  test. 

The  scale  has  a  tare  weight  for  balancing  the  cup  and  a  large  and 
small  weight  for  weighing  the  sample  and  obtaining  the  percentage 
of  moisture.  The  beam  has  two  rows  of  figures  which  give  readings 
with  the  larger  weight.  The  lower  row  gives  readings  in  grams  and 
the  upper  row  in  percentages.  The  smaller  weight  gives  readings  in 
grams  when  the  weight  is  moved  from  1  forward.  Each  notch  repre- 
sents .02  grams,  the  total  value  of  the  small  scale  being  .2  grams.  When 
the  small  weight  is  moved  from  0  backward,  each  notch  represents  a 
loss  of  .1  per  cent  of  moisture  when  20.2  grams  of  butter  are  used.  The 
small  weight  is  intended  to  be  used  only  in  moisture  work.  In  using 
the  scale  for  Babcock  work,  the  small  weight  is  not  used  but  is  left  at 
rest  on  the  figure  1.  Then,  when  the  scales  are  balanced,  the  small 
weight  is  negligible.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  any  draft  of  air, 
as  from  an  open  window,  strike  the  scales  when  in  use,  as  they  are  so 
sensitive  that  a  very  slight  current  of  air  would  throw  them  out  of 
balance.  The  scales  will  give  readings  in  percentages  only  when  20.2 
grams  of  butter  have  been  weighed  or,  in  other  words,  when  the  large 
weight  is  on  20  (of  the  gram  scale)  and  the  small  weight  is  on  zero. 

The  cup  used  is  of  cast  aluminum  and  is  durable  and  perfectly 
smooth.  The  absence  of  creases  or  crevices  allows  it  to  be  cleaned  and 
dried  thoroughly. 

Operation  of  the  test. — It  is  necessary  that  a  representative  sample 
be  taken  for  a  moisture-test.  If  the  butter  is  sold  in  tubs,  the  sample 
should  be  taken  from  the  tub  with  a  butter  trier,  after  the  butter  has 
been  packed.  It  is  best  to  take  three  drawings — one  from  near  the  edge, 
one  from  the  middle,  and  one  half  way  between  the  edge  and  the  mid- 
dle. Some  butter-makers  test  the  butter  as  soon  as  it  is  worked.  This 
is  a  mistake,  since  considerable  moisture  is  lost  in  the  process  of  print- 
ing and  packing. 

Place  the  sample  to  be  tested  in  a  glass  container  which  has  a  fairly 
wide  mouth,  so  that  the  sample  can  be  stirred.  A  quart  fruit  jar  is 
useful  for  this  purpose.  Then  hold  the  container  in  warm  water  until 
the  butter  begins  to  melt.  Remove  the  container  from  the  warm  bath 
and  thoroughly  mix  the  melted  with  the  unmelted  butter.  In  the  lab- 
oratory a  long-bladed  cheese  knife  was  found  very  useful  for  mixing 
the  butter.  A  wooden  stirrer  should  not  be  used,  as  it  is  likely  to  take 
up  moisture  from  the  sample.  The  process  of  melting  the  butter  and 
mixing  it  with  the  unmelted  butter  is  repeated  until  the  sample  con- 


Useful   Rules   and    Tests  361 

tains  no  lumps  and  the  entire  mass  is  about  the  consistency  of  thick 
cream.  The  container  is  then  transferred  to  cold  water  and  the  sample 
thoroughly  mixed  as  the  butter  cools.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  fat 
around  the  outside  of  the  container  to  harden  rapidly  and  force  the 
water  toward  the  center  of  the  jar.  For  this  reason  special  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  butter  scraped  off  the  sides  of  the  container  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  softer  butter  in  the  center  of  the  jar.  When 
the  sample  is  all  of  about  the  texture  of  ordinary  butter  the  mixing 
may  be  stopped.  If  the  process  has  been  properly  done,  the  water  will 
be  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  sample  and  any  desired  amount 
of  the  latter  may  be  removed  for  testing. 

After  the  cup  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried,  it  is  placed  on  the 
scales  and  balanced  by  means  of  the  tare  weight  on  the  round  bar 
attached  to  the  beam  of  the  scales.  The  large  weight  should  rest  on  the 
zero  mark  (of  the  gram  scale)  and  the  small  weight  on  1  while  the  cup 
is  being  balanced.  The  cup  should  not  be  balanced  until  it  is  about 
the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the  room.  After  the  cup  is  balanced, 
the  larger  weight  is  moved  to  the  20  mark  (of  the  gram  scale)  and  the 
small  weight  to  the  zero  mark.  Butter  from  the  prepared  sample  is 
then  added  to  the  cup  until  the  scales  are  accurately  balanced.  The 
alcohol  lamp  is  then  placed  under  the  iron  stand  and  the  asbestos  sheet 
placed  on  the  stand.  The  lamp  is  lighted  and  the  cup  placed  on  the 
asbestos  sheet.  It  is  well  to  light  the  lamp  at  least  two  or  three  minutes 
before  placing  the  cup  on  the  asbestos  in  order  to  heat  the  asbestos  and 
save  time.  T-.e  heat  of  the  flame  may  be  increased  or  diminished  by 
raising  or  lowering  the  wick.  The  cup  should  always  be  handled  with 
the  hot-pan  lifter,  as  by  so  doing  it  will  be  kept  clean  and  errors  in  weight 
due  to  dirt  on  the  cup  will  be  avoided. 

While  the  sample  is  heating  it  should  be  shaken  from  time  to  time, 
as  this  breaks  up  the  blanket  of  casein  on  the  surface  and  hastens  the 
escape  of  moisture.  As  soon  as  the  casein  has  lost  its  snow-white  color 
the  cup  should  be  removed  from  the  flame.  When  the  moisture  has 
all  been  driven  from  the  sample,  a  slightly  pungent  odor  may  be  noticed. 
This  may  also  be  used  as  a  guide  to  tell  when  the  sample  has  been 
heated  enough.  The  foam  begins  to  subside  at  this  point.  Often  one  or 
two  small  pieces  of  casein  are  slow  to  give  up  their  moisture.  This  is 
indicated  by  the  snow-white  color  of  the  pieces.  Evaporation  can  be 
hastened  by  shaking  the  sample  with  a  rotary  motion  and  thoroughly 
mixing  these  pieces  with  the  hot  liquid.  If  this  is  not  done,  one  might 
have  to  heat  the  sample  so  long  that  some  of  the  fat,  which  had  already 
given  up  its  moisture,  would  volatilize. 


362  Milk   and   Its   Products 

After  all  the  moisture  is  driven  off,  the  sample  is  allowed  to  cool 
to  room  temperature.  While  cooling,  the  cup  should  be  covered  with 
something  (a  sheet  of  paper  will  do)  to  prevent  the  sample  taking  up 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  After  cooling,  the  cup  is  placed  on  the 
scales.  The  sample  is  lighter  than  before  heating,  because  it  has  lost 
its  moisture.  The  bar  of  the  scales  will  therefore  remain  down.  The 
weights  are  then  reversed  until  the  scales  just  balance. 

Each  notch  that  the  larger  weight  is  reversed  has  a  value  of  1  per 
cent  (reading  on  the  upper  scale),  and  each  notch  that  the  smaller 
weight  is  reversed  has  a  value  of  .1  per  cent.  If,  for  example,  after 
heating,  the  scales  just  balance  when  the  larger  weight  rests  on  15 
(upper  scale)  and  the  smaller  weight  rests  on  .2,  it  would  mean  that 
the  sample  contained  15.2  per  cent  moisture. 

It  may  be  thought  by  those  using  the  Cornell  test  for  the  first  time 
that  the  use  of  the  asbestos  sheet  is  unnecessary.  It  is  true  that  any 
one  who  is  very  familiar  with  moisture  determinations  may  heat  but- 
ter in  a  direct  flame  and  get  fairly  accurate  results.  But  the  heat  of 
a  flame  is  so  intense  and  butter  volatilizes  so  easily  that  the  use  of  the 
asbestos  sheet  is  always  advisable. 


Metric    System 


363 


B.     METRIC    SYSTEM 

The  rneter  is  the  primary  unit  of  length.  It  is  equal  to 
TSffinnTinrth  part  of  the  distance  measured  on  a  meridian  of 
the  earth  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  and  equals  about  39.37 
inches. 


MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Myriameter 

10,000        meters 

6.2137    miles 

Kilometer 

1,000 

(     0.62137  mile,  or 
1     3280  ft.  10  iii. 

Hectometer 

100 

328  ft.  1  WT 

Dekameter 

10 

893.7  in. 

Meter 

1        meter 

39.37  in. 

Decimeter 

.1         " 

3.987  In. 

Centimeter 

.01 

.8937  in. 

Millimeter 

.001      " 

.03937  in. 

MEASURES  OF  SURFACE. 


EQUIVALENTS. 


Hectare 

10,000  sq.  meters 

2.471  acres 

Are 

100  " 

119.6  sq.  yards 

Centare 

1  "  meter 

1550.  sq.  inches. 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 


N"O.  OF 
LITEK3. 

CUBIC  MEASURE. 

DEY  MEASURE. 

LIQUID  ou  WINE 
MEASURE. 

Kiloliter,  or  Stere 

1000 

1   en.  meter 

1.308  cu.  yards 

264.17  gal. 

Hectoliter 

100 

.1  "        " 

2  bu.  8.35  pks. 

26.417  gal. 

Dekaliter 

10 

10  cu.  decimeters 

9.08  quarts 

2.6417  gal. 

Liter 

1 

1  cu.  decimeter 

.909  quart 

1.0567  qts. 

Deciliter 

.1 

.1" 

6.1022  cu.  inches 

.845  gill 

Centiliter 

.01 

10  cu.  centimeters 

.6102  cu.  inch 

.338  fl.  oz. 

Milliliter 

.001 

.leu.  centimeter 

.061     "      " 

.27  fl.  dram 

EQUIVALENTS. 


364 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

No.  OF  GKAMS. 

WEIGHT  OF  WATER 
MAXIMUM  DENSITY. 

AVOIRDUPOIS 
WEIGHT. 

Millier,  or  Tonnean 

1,000,000 

1     cu.  meter 

2204.6    pounds 

Quintal 

100,000 

1     hectoliter 

220.46 

Myriagram 

10,000 

1     dekaliter 

22.046      " 

Kilogram,  or  Kilo 

1,000 

1     liter 

2.2046    " 

Hectogram 

100 

1     deciliter 

3.5274  oz. 

Dekagram 

10 

10     cu.  centimeters 

.3527   " 

Gram 

1 

1     cu.  centimeter 

15.432    grains 

Decigram 

.1 

.1   " 

1.5432      " 

Centigram 

.01 

10    cu.  millimeters 

.1543  grain 

Milligram 

.001 

1      "    millimeter 

.0154      " 

COMMON 
MEASURE. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

COMMON 
MEASUBE. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

An  inch 

2.54  centimeters 

A  cu.  yard 

.7646  cu.  meter 

A  foot 

.3048  meter 

A  cord 

3.624  steres 

A  yard 

.9144      " 

A  liquid  qt. 

.9465  liter 

A  rod 

5.029  meters 

A  gallon 

3.786  liters 

A  mile 

1.6093  kilometers 

A  dry  qt. 

1.101     " 

A  sq.  inch 

6.452  sq.  centimeters 

A  peck 

8.811     " 

A  "    foot 

.0929  sq.  meter 

A  bushel 

35.24       " 

A  "    yard 

.8361  "       " 

An  oz.  avoirdupois 

28.35  grams 

A  "    rod 

25.29  sq.  meters 

A  pound        " 

.4536  kilogram 

An  acre 

.4047  hectare 

A  ton 

.9072  tonneau 

A  sq.  mile 

259  hectares. 

A  grain  troy 

.0648  gram 

A  cu.  inch 

16.89  cu.  centimeters 

An  oz. 

31.104  grams 

A    "   foot 

.02832  cu.  meter 

A  pound  " 

.8732  kilogram 

Legal    Standards  for   Dairy    Products          365 


C.    LEGAL  STANDARDS  FOR  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 
DAIRY  LAWS 

FEDERAL  STANDARDS. 

By  authority  of  the  Act  of  Congress,  approved  March  3,  1903,  and 
generally  known  as  the  "Pure  Food  Law"  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
\s  empowered  "to  establish  standards  of  purity  for  food  products  and 
to  determine  what  are  regarded  as  adulterations  therein."  The  follow- 
ing standards  have  been  established  for  dairy  products  and  are  pub- 
lished in  Circular  No.  19  of  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
under  date  of  June  26,  1906.  These  standards  are  generally  accepted 
throughout  the  United  States  and  have  been  officially  adopted  by  many 
of  the  states. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


1.  Milk  is  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion  obtained  by  the  com- 
plete milking  of  one  or  more  healthy  cows,  properly  fed  and  kept, 
excluding  that  obtained  within  fifteen  days  before  and  ten  days  after 
calving,  and  contains  not  less  than  eight  and  one-half  (8.5)  per  cent 
of  solids  not  fat,  and  not  less  than  three  and  one-quarter  (3.25)  per 
cent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Blended  milk  is  milk  modified  in  its  composition  so  as  to  have  a 
definite  and  stated  percentage  of  one  or  more  of  its  constituents. 

3.  Skim  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  part  or  all  of  the  cream  has  been 
removed  and  contains  not  less  than  nine  and  one-quarter  (9.25)  per 
cent  of  milk  solids. 

4.  Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  below  boiling  but 
sufficiently  to  kill  most  of  the  active  organisms  present  and  immediately 
cooled  to  50°  F.  or  lower. 

5.  Sterilized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  at  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water  or  higher  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to  kill  all  orgaii- 
isms  present. 

6.  Condensed  milk,  evaporated  milk,  is  milk  from  which  a  consider- 
able portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated  and  contains  not  less  than 
twenty-eight  (28)  per  cent  of  milk  solids  of  which  not  less  than  twenty- 
seven  and  five-tenths  (27.5)  per  cent  is  milk  fat. 


366  Milk  and   Its   Products 

7.  Sweetened   condensed   milk   is    milk    from    which    a    considerable 
portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated  and  to  which  sugar   (sucrose) 
has  been  added,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty-eight  (28)  per  cent 
of  milk  solids,   of  which  not  less  than  twenty-seven   and  five-tenths 
(27.5)  per  cent  is  milk  fat. 

8.  Condensed  skim  milk  is  skim  milk   from   which  a   considerable 
portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

9.  Buttermilk  is  the  product  that  remains  when  butter  is  removed 
from  milk  or  cream  in  the  process  of  churning. 

10.  Goat's  milk,  ewe's  milk,  et  cetera,  are  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal 
secretions,  free  from  colostrum,  obtained  by  the  complete  milking  of 
healthy  animals  other  than  cows,  properly  fed  and  kept,  and  conform 
in  name  to  the  species  of  animal  from  which  they  are  obtained. 

6.  CREAM 

1.  Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk,  rich  in  milk  fat,  which  rises  to  the 
surface  of  milk  on  standing,  or  is  separated  from  it  by  centrifugal  force, 
is  fresh  and  clean  and  contains  not  less  than  eighteen  (18)  per  cent  of 
milk  fat. 

2.  Evaporated  cream,  clotted  cream,  is  cream  from  which  a  consider- 
able portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

C.    MILK   FAT   OR   BUTTER   FAT 

1.  Milk  fat,  butter  fat,  is  the  fat  of  milk  and  has  a  Reichert-Meissl 
number  not  less  than  twenty-four  (24)  and  a  specific  gravity  not  less 


(40°  C. 
4o°a 


than  0.905 

\41T  ^./ 

d.   BUTTER 

1.  Butter  is  the  clean,   non-rancid  product  made  by  gathering  in 
any  manner  the  fat  of  fresh  or  ripened  milk  or  cream  into  a  mass,  which 
also  contains  a  small  portion  of  the  other  milk  constitutents,  with  or 
without  salt,   and  contains  not  less  than  eighty-two   and  five-tenths 
(82.5)  per  cent  of  milk  fat.    By  acts  of  Congress  approved  August  2, 
1886,  and  May  9,  1902,  butter  may  also  contain  added  coloring  matter. 

2.  Renovated  butter,  process  butter,  is  the  product  made  by  melting 
butter  and  reworking,  without  the  addition  or  use  of  chemicals  or  any 
substances  except  milk,   cream,  or  salt,  and  contains  not  more  than 


Legal   Standards  for   Dairy    Products          367 

sixteen  (16)  per  cent  of  water  and  at  least  eighty-two  and  five-tenths 
(82.5)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

e.  CHEESE 

1.  Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product  made  from  milk 
or  cream  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning,  and 
contains,  in  the  water-free  substance,  not  less  than  fifty  (50)  per  cent 
of  milk  fat.    By  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  6,  1896,  cheese  may 
also  contain  added  coloring  matter. 

2.  Skim  milk  cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product,  made 
from  skim  milk  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic 
acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning. 

3.  Goafs   milk   cheese,    ewe's   milk   cheese,   et   cetera,   are  the   sound, 
ripened  products  made  from  the  milks  of    the    animals    specified,  by 
coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid,  with  or  without 
the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning. 

/.  ICE  CREAMS 

1.  Ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream  and  sugar,  with 
or  without  a  natural   flavoring,   and   contains  not  less  than  fourteen 
(14)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar,  and 
sound,  clean,  mature  fruits,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  per 
cent  of  milk  fat. 

3.  Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar  and 
sound,  nonrancid  nuts,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  per  cent 
of  milk  fat. 

Q.    MISCELLANEOUS    MILK    PRODUCTS 

1.  Whey  is  the  product  remaining  after  the  removal  of  fat  and  casein 
from  milk  in  the  process  of  cheese-making. 

2.  Kumiss  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of 
mare's  or  cow's  milk. 

STATE   STANDARDS   FOR   MILK   AND   CREAM 

The  following  states  and  territories,  viz.,  Alabama,  Arizona,  Ark- 
ansas,   Delaware,    Maryland,    Mississippi,    New   Mexico,    South   Caro- 


Milk   and   Its   Products 


lina,     Tennessee     and     West     Virginia    have     established     no     legal 
standard. 

In  the  other  states  the  percentage  standards  are  as  follows: 

Milk 


Total  Solids  Fats  Cream 

Per  cent    Per  cent  Per  cent 

California 11.5  3.  18. 

Colorado '. 3.  16 

Connecticut 11.75  3.25  16. 

Florida 11.75  3.25  18. 

Georgia 11.75  3.25  18. 

Idaho. 11.  3.2  18. 

Illinois 11.5  3.  18. 

Indiana 11.75  3.25  18. 

Iowa 12.  3.  16. 

Kansas 11.75  3.25  18. 

Kentucky 11.75  3.25  18. 

Louisiana 12.  3.5 

Maine 11.75  3.25  18. 

Massachusetts 12.15  3.35  15. 

Michigan 12.5  3. 

Minnesota 13.  3.25  20. 

Missouri 12.  3.25  18. 

Montana 11.75  3.25  20. 

Nebraska 3.  18. 

Nevada .' 11.75  3.25  18. 

New  Hampshire 12.  -  :. . ''        18. 

New  Jersey 11.5  3.  16. 

New  York 11.5  3.  18. 

North  Carolina 11.75  3.25  18. 

North  Dakota 12.  3.  15. 

Ohio 12.  3. 

Oklahoma 3.  18. 

Oregon 12.  3.2  20. 

Pennsylvania 12.  3.25  18. 

Rhode  Island 12.  2.5 

South  Dakota 11.75  3.25  18. 

Texas 11.75  3.25  18. 

Utah 12.  3.2 

Vermont 11.75  3.25  18. 

Virginia 11.75  3.25  18. 

Washington 12.  3.25  18. 

Wisconsin 11.5  3.  18. 

Wyoming 3.25  18. 


Dairy   Laws  369 

The  full  texts  of  the  National  Oleomargarine  Law 
and  the  Filled  Cheese  Law  are  as  follows: 

THE    OLEOMARGARINE    LAW 

[Act  of  August  2,  1886  (24  Stat.,  209),  as  amended  by  acts  of  October  1,  1890  (26 
Stat.,  621),  and  May  9,  1902,  to  make  oleomargarine  and  other  imitation  dairy 
products  subject  to  the  laws  of  any  State,  or  Territory,  or  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia into  which  they  are  transported,  and  to  change  the  tax  on  oleomar- 
garine, and  to  impose  a  tax,  provide  for  the  inspection,  and  regulate  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  certain  dairy  products,  and  to  amend  an  act  entitled  "An 
act  denning  butter,  also  imposing  a  tax  upon  and  regulating  the  manufacture, 
sale,  importation,  and  exportation  of  oleomargarine,"  approved  August  2,  1886.] 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  'he  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  all  articles  known  as  oleo- 
margarine, butterine,  imitation,  process,  renovated,  or  adulterated 
butter,  or  imitation  cheese,  or  any  substance  in  the  semblance  of  butter 
or  cheese  not  the  usual  product  of  the  dairy  and  not  made  exclusively 
of  pure  and  unadulterated  milk  or  cream,  transported  into  any  State 
or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  remaining  therein  for  use, 
consumption,  sale,  or  storage  therein  shall,  upon  the  arrival  within 
the  limits  of  such  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  be 
subject  to  the  operation  and  effect  of  the  laws  of  such  State  or  Terri- 
tory or  the  District  of  Columbia,  enacted  in  the  exercise  of  its  police 
powers  to  the  same  extent  and  in  the  same  manner  as  though  such  arti- 
cles or  substances  had  been  produced  in  such  State  or  Territory  or  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  shall  not  be  exempt  therefrom  by  reason 
of  being  introduced  therein  in  original  packages  or  otherwise. 

SECTION  1,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  for  the  purpose  of  this  act  the  word  "butter"  shall  be  under- 
stood to  mean  the  food  product  usually  known  as  butter,  and  which 
is  made  exclusively  from  milk  or  cream,  or  both,  with  or  without  com- 
mon salt,  and  with  or  without  additional  coloring  matter. 

SEC.  2,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  certain  manufactured  substances, 
certain  extracts,  and  certain  mixtures  and  compounds,  including  such 
mixtures  and  compounds  with  butter,  shall  be  known  and  designated 
as  "oleomargarine,"  namely:  All  substances  heretofore  known  as  oleo- 
margarine, oleo,  oleomargarine-oil,  butterine,  lardine,  suine  and  neutral; 
all  mixtures  and  compounds  of  oleomargarine,  oleo,  oleomargarine-oil, 
butterine,  lardine,  suine,  and  neutral;  all  lard  extracts  and  tallow 
extracts;  and  all  mixtures  and  compounds  of  tallow,  beef -fat,  suet, 
lard,  lard-oil,  vegetable  oil,  annotto,  and  other  coloring  matter,  intes- 


370  Milk   and   Its   Products 

tinal  fat,  and  offal  fat  made  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  butter,  or  when 
so  made,  calculated  or  intended  to  be  sold  as  butter  or  for  butter. 

SEC.  3,  Act.  of  August  2,  1886,  as  amended  by  Section  2  of  the  Act 
of  May  9,  1902,  provides  as  follows: 

That  special  taxes  are  imposed  as  follows: 

Manufacturers  of  oleomargarine  shall  pay  six  hundred  dollars. 
Every  person  who  manufactures  oleomargarine  for  sale  shall  be  deemed 
a  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine. 

And  any  person  that  sells,  vends,  or  furnishes  oleomargarine  for  the 
use  and  consumption  of  others,  except  to  his  own  family  table  without 
compensation,  who  shall  add  to  or  mix  with  such  oleomargarine  any  arti- 
ficial coloration  that  causes  it  to  look  like  butter  of  any  shade  of  yellow 
shall  also  be  held  to  be  a  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine  within  the  mean- 
ing of  said  Act,  and  subject  to  the  provisions  thereof. 

Wholesale  dealers  in  oleomargarine  shall  pay  four  hundred  and 
eighty  dollars.  Every  person  who  sells  or  offers  for  sale  oleomargarine 
in  the  original  manufacturer's  packages  shall  be  deemed  a  wholesale 
dealer  in  oleomargarine.  But  any  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine  who 
has  given  the  required  bond  and  paid  the  required  special  tax,  and  who 
sells  only  oleomargarine  of  his  own  production,  at  the  place  of  manu- 
facture, in  the  original  packages  to  which  the  tax-paid  stamps  are 
affixed,  shall  not  be  required  to  pay  the  special  tax  of  a  wholesale  dealer 
in  oleomargarine  on  account  of  such  sales. 

Retail  dealers  in  oleomargarine  shall  pay  forty-eight  dollars.  Every 
person  who  sells  oleomargarine  in  less  quantities  than  ten  pounds  at 
one  time  shall  be  regarded  as  a  retail  dealer  in  oleomargarine.  And 
sections  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-two,  thirty-two  hundred  and 
thirty-three,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-four,  thirty-two  hundred 
and  thirty-five,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-six,  thirty-two  hundred 
and  thirty-seven,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-eight,  thirty-two 
hundred  and  thirty-nine,  thirty-two  hundred  and  forty,  thirty-two 
hundred  and  forty-one,  and  thirty-two  hundred  and  forty-three  of  the. 
Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States  are,  so  far  as  applicable,  made 
to  extend  to  and  include  and  apply  to  the  special  taxes  imposed  by  this 
section,  and  to  the  persons  upon  whom  they  are  imposed:  Provided 
further,  That  wholesale  dealers  who  vend  no  other  oleomargarine  or  butter- 
ine  except  that  upon  which  a  tax  of  one-fourth  of  one  cent  per  pound  is 
imposed  by  this  Act,  as  amended,  shall  pay  two  hundred  dollars;  and  such 
retail  dealers  as  vend  no  other  oleomargarine  or  butterine  except  that  upon 
which  is  imposed  by  this  Act,  as  amended,  a  tax  of  one-fourth  of  one  cent 
per  pound  shall  pay  six  dollars. 


Dairy   Laws  371 

SEC.  4,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  every  person  who  carries  on  the  business  of  a  manufacturer  of 
oleomargarine  without  having  paid  the  special  tax  therefor,  as  required 
by  law,  shall,  besides  being  liable  to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined 
not  less  than  one  thousand  and  not  more  than  five  thousand  dollars; 
and  every  person  who  carries  on  the  business  of  a  wholesale  dealer  in 
oleomargarine  without  having  paid  the  special  tax  therefor,  as  required 
by  law,  shall,  besides  being  liable  to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined 
not  less  than  five  hundred  nor  more  than  two  thousand  dollars;  and 
every  person  who  carries  on  the  business  of  a  retail  dealer  in  oleomar- 
garine without  having  paid  the  special  tax  therefor,  as  required  by  law, 
shall,  besides  being  liable  to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined  not  less 
than  fifty  nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  for  each  and  evej?y  offence. 

SEC.  5,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  every  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine  shall  file  with  the  col- 
lector of  internal  revenue  of  the  district  in  which  his  manufactory  is 
located  such  notices,  inventories,  and  bonds,  shall  keep  such  books  and 
render  such  returns  of  material  and  products,  shall  put  up  such  signs 
and  affix  such  number  to  his  factory,  and  conduct  his  business  under 
such  surveillance  of  officers  and  agents  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal 
Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may,  by 
regulation,  require.  But  the  bond  required  of  such  manufacturer  shall 
be  with  sureties  satisfactory  to  the  collector  of  internal  revenue,  and 
in  a  penal  sum  of  not  less  than  five  thousand  dollars;  and  the  sum  of 
said  bond  may  be  increased  from  time  to  time  and  additional  sureties 
required  at  the  discretion  of  the  collector,  or  under  instructions  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue. 

SEC.  6,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  all  oleomargarine  shall  be  packed  by  the  manufacturer  thereof 
in  firkins,  tubs,  or  other  wooden  packages  not  before  used  for  that  pur- 
pose; each  containing  not  less  than  ten  pounds,  and  marked,  stamped, 
and  branded  as  the  'Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  shall  prescribe;  and  all  sales 
made  by  manufacturers  of  oleomargarine,  and  wholesale  dealers  in 
oleomargarine  shall  be  in  original  stamped  packages.  Retail  dealers 
in  oleomargarine  must  sell  only  from  original  stamped  packages,  in 
quantities  not  exceeding  ten  pounds,  and  shall  pack  the  oleomargarine 
sold  by  them  in  suitable  wooden  or  paper  packages  which  shall  be 
marked  and  branded  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  shall  prescribe.  Every 
person  who  knowingly  sells  or  offers  for  sale,  or  delivers  or  offers  to 


372  Milk   and  Its  Products 

deliver,  any  oleomargarine  in  any  other  form  than  in  new  wooden  or 
paper  packages  as  above  described,  or  who  packs  in  any  package  any 
oleomargarine  in  any  manner  contrary  to  law  or  who  falsely  brands 
any  package  or  affixes  a  stamp  on  any  package  denoting  a  less  amount 
of  tax  than  that  required  by  law  shall  be  fined  for  each  offense  not  more 
than  one  thousand  dollars,  and  be  imprisoned  not  more  than  two  years. 

SEC.  7,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  every  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine  shall  securely  affix',  by 
pasting,  on  each  package  containing  oleomargarine  manufactured  by 
him,  a  label  on  which  shall  be  printed,  besides  the  number  of  the  man- 
ufactory and  the  district  and  State  in  which  it  is  situated,  these  words: 
"Notice — The  manufacturer  of  the  oleomargarine  herein  contained 
has  complied  with  all  the  requirements  of  law.  Every  person  is  cau- 
tioned not  to  use  either  this  package  again  or  the  stamp  thereon  again, 
nor  to  remove  the  contents  of  this  package  without  destroying  said 
stamp,  under  the  penalty  provided  by  law  in  such  cases."  Every  manu- 
facturer of  oleomargarine  who  neglects  to  affix  such  label  to  any  package 
containing  oleomargarine  made  by  him,  or  sold  or  offered  for  sale  by 
or  for  him,  and  every  person  who  removes  any  such  label  so  affixed 
from  any  such  package,  shall  be  fined  fifty  dollars  for  each  package 
in  respect  to  which  such  offense  is  committed. 

SEC.  8,  Act  of  August  2,  1886,  as  amended  by  Section  3,  Act  of  May 
9,  1902: 

That  upon  oleomargarine  which  shall  be  manufactured  and  sold,  or 
removed  for  consumption  or  use,  there  shall  be  assessed  and  collected  a 
tax  of  ten  cents  per  pound,  to  be  paid  by  the  manufacturer  thereof;  and  any 
fractional  part  of  a  pound  in  a  package  shall  be  taxed  as  a  pound:  Pro- 
vided, When  oleomargarine  is  free  from  artificial  coloration  that  causes  it 
to  look  like  butter  of  any  shade  of  yellow  said  tax  shall  be  one-fourth  of 
one  cent  per  pound.  The  tax  levied  by  this  section  shall  be  represented  by 
coupon  stamps;  and  the  provisions  of  existing  laws  governing  the  engrav- 
ing, issue,  sale,  accountability,  effacement,  and  destruction  of  stamps 
relating  to  tobacco  and  snuff,  as  far  as  applicable,  are  hereby  made  to  apply 
to  stamps  provided  for  by  this  section. 

SEC.  9,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  whenever  any  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine  sells,  or  removes 
for  sale  or  consumption,  any  oleomargarine  upon  which  the  tax  is 
required  to  be  paid  by  stamps,  without  the  use  of  the  proper  stamps,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  within  a 
period  of  not  more  than  two  years  alter  such  sale  or  removal,  upon 
satisfactory  proof,  to  estimate  the  amount  of  tax  which  has  been 


Dairy   Laws  373 

omitted  to  be  paid,  and  to  make  an  assessment  therefor  and  certify  the 
same  to  the  collector.  The  tax  so  assesed  shall  be  in  addition  to  the 
penalties  imposed  by  law  for  such  sale  or  removal. 

SEC.  10,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  all  oleomargarine  imported  from  foreign  countries  shall,  in 
addition  to  any  import  duty  imposed  on  the  same,  pay  an  internal 
revenue  tax  of  fifteen  cents  per  pound,  such  tax  to  be  represented  by 
coupon  stamps  as  in  the  case  of  oleomargarine  manufactured  in  the 
United  States.  The  stamps  shall  be  affixed  and  canceled  by  the  owner 
or  importer  of  the  oleomargarine  while  it  is  in  the  custody  of  the  proper 
custom-house  officers;  and  the  oleomargarine  shall  not  pass  out  of  the 
custody  of  said  officers  until  the  stamps  have  been  so  affixed  and  can- 
celed, but  shall  be  put  up  in  wooden  packages,  each  containing  not 
less  than  ten  pounds,  as  prescribed  in  this  act  for  oleomargarine  manufac- 
tured in  the  United  States,  before  the  stamps  are  affixed ;  and  the  owner 
or  importer  of  such  oleomargarine  shall  be  liable  to  all  the  penal  pro- 
visions of  this  act  prescribed  for  manufacturers  of  oleomargarine  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  take  any 
oleomargarine  so  imported  to  any  place  other  than  the  public  stores  of 
the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  affixing  and  canceling  such  stamps, 
the  collector  of  customs,  of  the  port  where  such  oleomargarine  is  entered 
shall  designate  a  bonded  warehouse  to  which  it  shall  be  taken,  under 
the  control  of  such  customs  officer  as  such  collector  may  direct;  and 
every  officer  of  customs  who  permits  any  such  oleomargarine  to  pass 
out  of  his  custody  or  control  without  compliance  by  the  owner  or 
importer  thereof  with  the  provisions  of  this  section  relating  thereto, 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  one 
thousand  dollars  nor  more  than  five  thousand  dollars,  and  imprisoned 
not  less  than  six  months  nor  more  than  three  years.  Every  person  who 
sells  or  offers  for  sale  any  imported  oleomargarine,  or  oleomargarine 
purporting  or  claimed  to  have  been  imported,  not  put  up  in  packages 
and  stamped  as  provided  by  this  act,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  five 
hundred  dollars  nor  more  than  five  thousand  dollars,  and  be  imprisoned 
not  less  than  six  months  nor  more  than  two  years. 

SEC.  11,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  every  person  who  knowingly  purchases  or  receives  for  sale 
any  oleomargarine  which  has  not  been  branded  or  stamped  according 
to  law  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  fifty  dollars  for  each  such  offense. 

SEC.  12,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  every  person  who  knowingly  purchases  or  receives  for  sale 
any  oleomargarine  from  any  manufacturer  who  has  not  paid  the  special 


374  Milk   and   Its   Product? 

tax  shall  be  liable  for  each  offense  to  a  penalty  of  one  hundred  dollars, 
and  to  a  forfeiture  of  all  articles  so  purchased  or  received,  or  of  the  full 
value  thereof. 

SEC.  13,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  whenever  any  stamped  package  containing  oleomargarine  is 
emptied,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  person  in  whose  hands  the  same  is 
to  destroy  utterly  the  stamps  thereon;  and  any  person  who  willfully 
neglects  or  refuses  so  to  do  shall  for  each  such  offense  be  fined  not  exceed- 
ing fifty  dollars,  and  imprisoned  not  less  than  ten  days  nor  more  than 
six  months.  And  any  person  who  fraudulently  gives  away  or  accepts 
from  another,  or  who  sells,  buys,  or  uses  for  packing  oleomargarine, 
any  such  stamped  package,  shall  for  each  such  offense  be  fined  not  exceed- 
ing one  hundred  dollars,  and  be  imprisoned  not  more  than  one  year. 
Any  revenue  officer  may  destroy  any  emptied  oleomargarine  package 
upon  which  the  tax-paid  stamp  is  found. 

SEC.  14,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  there  shall  be  in  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal 
Revenue  an  analytical  chemist  and  a  microscopist,  who  shall  each  be 
appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  shall  each  receive  a 
salary  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  per  annum;  and  the  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue  may,  whenever  in  his  judgment  the 
necessities  of  the  service  so  require,  employ  chemists  and  microscopists, 
to  be  paid  such  compensation  as  he  may  deem  proper,  not  exceeding 
in  the  aggregate  any  appropriation  made  for  that  purpose.  And  such 
Commissioner  is  authorized  to  decide  what  substances,  extracts,  mix- 
tures, or  compounds  which  may  be  submitted  for  his  inspection  in 
contested  cases  are  to  be  taxed  under  this  act;  and  his  decision  in  mat- 
ters of  taxation  under  this  act  shall  be  final.  The  Commissioner  may 
also  decide  whether  any  substance  made  in  imitation  or  semblance  of 
butter,  and  intended  for  human  consumption,  contains  ingredients 
deleterious  to  the  public  health ;  but  in  case  of  doubt  or  contest  his 
decision  in  this  class  of  cases  may  be  appealed  from  to  a  board  hereby 
constituted  for  the  purpose,  and  composed  of  the  Surgeon-General  of 
the  Army,  the  Surgeon-General  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Commissioner 
(now  Secretary)  of  Agriculture;  and  the  decisions  of  this  board  shall  be 
final  in  the  premises. 

SEC.  15,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  all  packages  of  oleomargarine  subject  to  tax  under  this  act 
that  shall  be  found  without  stamps  or  marks  as  herein  provided,  and 
all  oleomargarine  intended  for  human  consumption  which  contains 
ingredients  adjudged,  as  hereinbefore  provided,  to  be  deleterious  to 


Dairy   Laws  375 

the  public  health,  shall  be  forfeited  to  the  United  States.  Any  person 
who  shall  willfully  remove  or  deface  the  stamps,  marks,  or  brands  on 
a  package  containing  oleomargarine  taxed  as  provided  herein  shall  be 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than 
one  hundred  dollars  nor  more  than  two  thousand  dollars,  and  by 
imprisonment  for  not  less  than  thirty  days  nor  more  than  six  months. 

SEC.  16,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  oleomargarine  may  be  removed  from  the  place  of  manu- 
facture for  export  to  a  foreign  country  without  payment  of  tax  or  affix- 
ing stamps  thereto,  under  such  regulations  and  the  filing  of  such  bonds 
and  other  security  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  prescribe.  Every  per- 
son who  shall  export  oleomargarine  shall  brand  upon  every -tub,  firkin, 
or  other  package  containing  such  article  the  word  "Oleomargarine," 
in  plain  Roman  letters  not  less  than  one-half  inch  square. 

SEC.  17,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  whenever  any  person  engaged  in  carrying  on  the  business  of 
manufacturing  oleomargarine  defrauds,  or  attempts  to  defraud,  the 
United  States  of  the  tax  on  the  oleomargarine  produced  by  him,  or  any 
part  thereof,  he  shall  forfeit  the  factory  and  manufacturing  apparatus 
used  by  him,  and  all  oleomargarine  and  all  raw  material  for  the  pro- 
duction of  oleomargarine  found  in  the  factory  and  on  the  factory  prem- 
ises, and  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  five  hundred  dollars  nor  more  than 
five  thousand  dollars,  and  be  imprisoned  not  less  than  six  months  nor 
more  than  three  years. 

SEC.  18,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  if  any  manufacturer  of  oleomargarine,  any  dealer  therein,  or 
any  importer  or  exporter  thereof  shall  knowingly  or  willfully  omit, 
neglect,  or  refuse  to  do,  or  cause  to  be  done,  any  of  the  things  required 
by  law  in  the  carrying  on  or  conducting  of  his  business,  or  shall  do  any- 
thing by  this  act  prohibited,  if  there  be  no  specific  penalty  or  punish- 
ment imposed  by  any  other  section  of  this  act  for  the  neglecting,  omit- 
ting, or  refusing  to  do,  or  for  the  doing  or  causing  to  be  done,  the  thing 
required  or  prohibited,  he  shall  pay  a  penalty  of  one  thousand  dollars; 
and  if  the  person  so  offending  be  the  manufacturer  of  or  a  whole- 
sale dealer  in  oleomargarine,  all  the  oleomargarine  owned  by  him,  or 
in  which  he  has  any  interest  as  owner,  shall  be  forfeited  to  the 
United  States. 

SEC.  19,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  all  fines,  penalties,  and  forfeitures  imposed  by  this  act  may  be 
recovered  in  any  court  of  competent  jurisdiction. 


376  Milk   and  Its   Products 

SEC.  20,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  make  all  needful  regulations  for 
the  carrying  into  effect  of  this  act. 

SEC.  21,  Act  of  August  2,  1886: 

That  this  act  shall  go  into  effect  on  the  ninetieth  day  after  its  pas- 
sage; and  all  wooden  packages  containing  ten  or  more  pounds  of  oleo- 
margarine found  on  the  premises  of  any  dealer  on  or  after  the  ninetieth 
day  succeeding  the  date  of  the  passage  of  this  act  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
taxable  under  section  eight  of  this  act,  and  shall  be  taxed,  and  shall 
have  affixed  thereto  the  stamps,  marks,  and  brands  required  by  this  act 
or  by  regulations  made  pursuant  to  this  act;  and  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  the  affixing  of  the  stamps,  marks  and  brands  required  by  this 
act,  the  oleomargarine  shall  be  regarded  as  having  been  manufactured 
and  sold,  or  removed  from  the  manufactory  for  consumption  or  use,  on 
or  after  the  day  this  act  takes  effect;  and  such  stock  on  hand  at  the  time 
of  the  taking  effect  of  this  act  may  be  stamped,  marked,  and  branded 
under  special  regulations  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  and  the  Commissioner  of 
Internal  Revenue  may  authorize  the  holder  of  such  packages-  to  mark 
and  brand  the  same  and  to  affix  thereto  the  proper  tax-paid  stamps. 

SEC.  4,  Act  of  May  9,  1902: 

That  for  the  purpose  of  this  act  "butter"  is  hereby  defined  to  mean 
an  article  of  food  as  defined  in  "An  Act  defining  butter,  also  imposing 
a  tax  upon  and  regulating  the  manufacture,  sale,  importation,  and 
exportation  of  oleomargarine,"  approved  August  second,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  eighty-six;  that  "adulterated  butter"  is  hereby  defined  to 
mean  a  grade  of  butter  produced  by  mixing,  reworking,  rechurning  in 
milk  or  cream,  refining,  or  in  any  way  producing  a  uniform,  purified, 
or  improved  product  from  different  lots  or  parcels  of  melted  or  unmelted 
butter  or  butter  fat,  in  which  any  acid,  alkali,  chemical,  or  any  sub- 
stance whatever  is  introduced  or  used  for  the  purpose  or  with  the  effect 
of  deodorizing  or  removing  therefrom  rancidity,  or  any  butter  or  butter 
fat  with  which  there  is  mixed  any  substance  foreign  to  butter  as  herein 
defined,  with  intent  or  effect  of  cheapening  in  cost  the  product  or  any 
butter  in  the  manufacture  or  manipulation  of  which  any  process  or 
material  is  used  with  intent  or  effect  of  causing  the  absorption  of  abnor- 
mal quantities  of  water,  milk,  or  cream;  that  "process  butter"  or  "reno- 
vated butter"  is  hereby  defined  to  mean  butter  which  has  been  sub- 
jected to  any  process  by  which  it  is  melted,  clarified  or  refined  and 
made  to  resemble  genuine  butter,  always  excepting  "adulterated  but- 
ter" as  defined  by  this  Act, 


Dairy   Laws  377 

That  special  taxes  are  imposed  as  follows: 

Manufacturers  of  process  or  renovated  butter  shall  pay  fifty  dol- 
lars per  year  and  manufacturers  of  adulterated  butter  shall  pay  six 
hundred  dollars  per  year.  Every  person  who  engages  in  the  production 
of  process  or  renovated  butter  or  adulterated  butter  as  a  business  shall 
be  considered  to  be  a  manufacturer  thereof. 

Wholesale  dealers  in  adulterated  butter  shall  pay  a  tax  of  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty  dollars  per  annum,  and  retail  dealers  in  adulterated 
butter  shall  pay  a  tax  of  forty-eight  dollars  per  annum.  Every  person 
who  sells  adulterated  butter  in  less  quantities  than  ten  pounds  at  one 
time  shall  be  regarded  as  a  retail  dealer  in  adulterated  butter. 

Every  person  who  sells  adulterated  butter  shall  be  regarded  as  a 
dealer  in  adulterated  butter.  And  sections  thirty-two  hundred  and 
thirty-two,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-three,  thirty-two  hundred 
and  thirty-four,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-five,  thirty-two  hundred 
and  thirty-six,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-seven,  thirty-two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-nine,  thirty-two 
hundred  and  forty,  thirty-two  hundred  and  forty-one,  and  thirty-two 
hundred  and  forty-three  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States 
are,  so  far  as  applicable,  made  to  extend  to  and  include  and  apply  to 
the  special  taxes  imposed  by  this  section  and  to  the  person  upon  whom 
they  are  imposed. 

That  every  person  who  carries  on  the  business  of  a  manufacturer 
of  process  or  renovated  butter  or  adulterated  butter  without  having 
paid  the  special  tax  therefor,  as  required  by  law,  shall,  besides  being 
liable  to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined  not  less  than  one  thousand 
and  not  more  than  five  thousand  dollars;  and  every  person  who  carries 
on  the  business  of  a  dealer  in  adulterated  butter  without  having  paid 
the  special  tax  therefor,  as  required  by  law,  shall,  besides  being  liable 
to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined  not  less  than  fifty  nor  more  than  five 
hundred  dollars  for  each  offense. 

That  every  manufacturer  of  process  or  renovated  butter  or  adul- 
terated butter  shall  file  with  the  collector  of  internal  revenue  of  the 
district  in  which  his  manufactory  is  located  such  notices,  inventories, 
and  bonds,  shall  keep  such  books  and  render  such  returns  of  material 
and  products,  shall  put  up  such  signs  and  affix  such  number  of  his 
factory,  and  conduct  his  business  under  such  surveillance  of  officers 
and  agents  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  by  regulation  require.  But  the 
bond  required  of  such  manufacturer  shall  be  with  sureties  satisfactory 
to  the  collector  of  internal  revenue,  and  in  a  penal  sum  of  not  less  than 


378  Milk   and  Its   Products 

five  hundred  dollars;  and  the  sum  of  said  bond  may  be  increased  from 
time  to  time  and  additional  sureties  required  at  the  discretion  of  the 
collector  or  under  instructions  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue. 

That  all  adulterated  butter  shall  be  packed  by  the  manufacturer 
thereof  in  firkins,  tubs,  or  other  wooden  packages  not  before  used  for 
that  purpose,  each  containing  not  less  than  ten  pounds,  and  marked, 
stamped,  and  branded  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  shall  prescribe;  and  all 
sales  made  by  manufacturers  of  adulterated  butter  shall  be  in  original 
stamped  packages. 

Dealers  in  adulterated  butter  must  sell  only  original  or  from  original 
stamped  packages,  and  when  such  original  stamped  packages  are 
broken  the  adulterated  butter  sold  from  same  shall  be  placed  in  suitable 
wooden  or  paper  packages,  which  shall  be  marked  and  branded  as  the 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  shall  prescribe.  Every  person  who  knowingly  sells 
or  offers  for  sale,  or  delivers  or  offers  to  deliver,  any  adulterated  butter 
in  any  other  form  than  in  new  wooden  or  paper  packages  as  above 
described,  or  who  packs  in  any  package  any  adulterated  butter  in  any 
manner  contrary  to  law,  or  who  falsely  brands  any  package  or  affixes 
a  stamp  on  any  package  denoting  a  less  amount  of  tax  than  that 
required  by  law,  shall  be  fined  for  each  offense  not  more  than  one  thous- 
and dollars  and  be  imprisoned  not  more  than  two  years. 

That  every  manufacturer  of  adulterated  butter  shall  securely  affix, 
by  pasting,  on  each  package  containing  adulterated  butter  manufac- 
tured by  him  a  label  on  which  shall  be  printed,  besides  the  number  of 
the  manufactory  and  the  district  and  State  in  which  it  is  situated,  these 
words:  "Notice. — That  the  manufacturer  of  the  adulterated  butter 
herein  contained  has  complied  with  all  the  requirements  of  law.  Every 
person  is  cautioned  not  to  use  either  this  package  again  or  the  stamp 
thereon,  nor  to  remove  the  contents  of  this  package  without  destroying 
said  stamp,  under  the  penalty  provided  by  law  in  such  cases."  Every 
manufacturer  of  adulterated  butter  who  neglects  to  affix  such  label 
to  any  package  containing  adulterated  butter  made  by  him,  or  sold  or 
offered  for  sale  for  or  by  him,  and  every  person  who  removes  any  such 
label  so  affixed  from  any  such  package  shall  be  fined  fifty  dollars  for 
each  package  in  respect  to  which  such  offense  is  committed. 

That  upon  adulterated  butter,  when  manufactured  or  sold  or 
removed  for  consumption  or  use,  there  shall  be  assessed  and  collected 
a  tax  of  ten  cents  per  pound,  to  be  paid  by  the  manufacturer  thereof, 
and  any  fractional  part  of  a  pound  shall  be  taxed  as  a  pound,  and  that 


Dairy   Laws  379 

upon  process  or  renovated  butter,  when  manufactured  or  sold  or 
removed  for  consumption  or  use,  there  shall  be  assessed  and  collected 
a  tax  of  one-fourth  of  one  cent  per  pound  to  be  paid  by  the  manufac- 
turer thereof,  and  any  fractional  part  of  a  pound  shall  be  taxed  as  a 
pound.  The  tax  to  be  levied  by  this  section,  shall  be  represented  by 
coupon  stamps,  and  the  provisions  of  existing  laws  governing  engrav- 
ing, issuing,  sale,  accountability,  effacement,  and  destruction  of  stamps 
relating  to  tobacco  and  snuff,  as  far  as  applicable,  are  hereby  made  to 
apply  to  the  stamps  provided  by  this  section. 

That  the  provisions  of  sections  nine,  ten,  eleven,  twelve,  thirteen, 
fourteen,  fifteen,  sixteen,  seventeen,  eighteen,  nineteen,  twenty,  and 
twenty-one  of  "An  Act  defining  butter,  also  imposing  a  tax  upon  and 
regulating  the  manufacture,  sale,  importation,  and  exportation  of 
oleomargarine,"  approved  August  second,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty- 
six,  shall  apply  to  manufacturers  of  "adulterated  butter"  to  an  extent 
necessary  to  enforce  the  marking,  branding,  identification,  and  regu- 
lation of  the  exportation  and  importation  of  adulterated  butter. 

SEC.  5,  Act  of  May  9,  1902: 

All  parts  of  an  act  providing  for  an  inspection  of  meats  for  exporta- 
tion, approved  August  thirtieth,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  and  of 
an  act  to  provide  for  the  inspection  of  live  cattle,  hogs,  and  the  car- 
casses and  products  thereof  which  are  the  subjects  on  interstate  com- 
merce, approved  March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  and 
of  amendment  thereto  approved  March  second,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety -five,  which  are  applicable  to  the  subjects  and  purposes  described 
in  this  section  shall  apply  to  process  or  renovated  butter.  And  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  hereby  authorized  and  required  to  cause  a 
rigid  sanitary  inspection  to  be  made,  at  such  times  as  he  may  deem 
proper  or  necessary,  of  all  factories  and  storehouses  where  process  or 
renovated  butter  is  manufactured,  packed,  or  prepared  for  market,  and 
of  the  products  thereof  and  materials  going  into  the  manufacture  of 
same.  All  process  or  renovated  butter  and  the  packages  containing 
the  same  shall  be  marked  with  the  words  "Renovated  Butter"  or  "Pro- 
cess Butter"  and  by  such  other  marks,  labels,  or  brands  and  in  such 
manner  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  no 
process  or  renovated  butter  shall  be  shipped  or  transported  from  its 
place  of  manufacture  into  any  other  State  or  Territory  or  the  District 
of  Columbia,  or  to  any  foreign  country,  until  it  has  been  marked  as 
provided  in  this  section.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  make  all 
needful  regulations  for  carrying  this  section  into  effect,  and  shall  cause 
to  be  ascertained  and  reported  from  time  to  time  the  quantity  and 


380  Milk   and   Its   Products 

quality  of  process  or  renovated  butter  manufactured,  and  the  charac- 
ter and  the  condition  of  the  material  from  which  it  is  made.  And  he 
shall  also  have  power  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  said  process  or  renovated  butter  are  deleterious  to 
health  or  unwholesome  in  the  finished  product,  and  in  case  such  delete- 
rious or  unwholesome  materials  are  found  to  be  used  in  product  intended 
for  exportation  or  shipment  into  other.  States  or  in  course  of  exporta- 
tion or  shipment  he  shall  have  power  to  confiscate  the  same.  Any  per- 
son, firm,  or  corporation  violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  section 
shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  on  conviction  thereof 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than 
five  hundred  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  not  less  than  one  month  nor 
more  than  six  months,  or  by  both  said  punishments,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  court. 

SEC.  6,  Act  of  May  9,  1902: 

That  wholesale  dealers  in  oleomargarine,  process,  renovated,  or 
adulterated  butter  shall  keep  such  books  and  render  such  returns  in 
relation  thereto  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may,  by  regulation,  require; 
and  such  books  shall  be  open  at  all  times  to  the  inspection  of  any  inter- 
nal revenue  officer  or  agent.  And  any  person  who  willfully  violates  any 
of  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  for  each  such  offense  be  fined  not 
less  than  fifty  dollars  and  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars,  and 
imprisoned  not  less  than  thirty  days  nor  more  than  six  months. 

SEC.  7,  Act  of  May  9,  1902: 

This  act  shall  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of  July,  nineteen  hun- 
dred and  two. 


Oleomargarine  law  constitutional. — Supreme  Court  decision  in  McCray  vs.  United 
States.   Decided  May  31,  1904. 

The  law,  act  May  9,  1902,  imposing  a  tax  of  10  cents  a  pound  on 
oleomargarine  artificially  coloied  in  imitation  of  butter  and  one-fourth 
of  1  cent  per  pound  on  uncolored  oleomargarine  is  constitutional.  The 
courts  can  not  hold  a  tax  void  because  it  is  deemed  too  high.  Although 
the  effect  of  the  tax  in  question  may  be  to  repress  the  manufacture  of 
artificially  colored  oleomargarine,  it  is  not  on  that  account  a  violation 
of  fundamental  rights.  An  act  of  Congress  exerting  the  taxing  power 
can  not  be  avoided  on  the  ground  that  it  is  an  abuse  of  power.  Whilst 
the  statute  recognized  the  right  of  a  manufacturer  to  use  any  or  all  of 
the  authorized  ingredients  so  as  to  make  oleomargarine,  and  also  author- 


Dairy   Laws  381 

ized  as  one  of  the  ingredients  butter  artificially  colored,  if  the  manu- 
facturer elected  to  use  such  ingredient  last  mentioned,  and  thereby 
gave  to  his  manufactured  product  artificial  coloration,  such  product  so 
colored,  although  being  oleomargarine,  was  not  within  the  exception 
created  by  the  proviso,  and  therefore  came  under  the  general  rule  sub- 
jecting oleomargarine  to  the  tax  of  ten  cents  a  pound.  (Vol.  7,  Treas. 
Dec.  (1904),  Decision  No.  795.  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
No.  301.  October  Term,  1903.  Leo  W.  McCray,  plaintiff  in  error,  vs. 
United  States.) 

Oleomargarine. — Opinion  of  Supreme  Cdurt  in  the  palm-oil  case. — Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States. — No.  19 — October  term.  1904. — August  Cliff, 
plaintiff  in  error,  vs.  United  States,  October  24,  1904. 

One  of  the  purposes  of  the  oleomargarine  legislation  was  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  oleomargarine  as  and  for  butter.  When  any  substance, 
although  named  as  a  possible  ingredient  of  oleomargarine,  serves  only 
the  function  of  coloring  the  mass  so  as  to  cause  it  to  "look  like  butter 
of  any  shade  of  yellow,"  it  is  an  artificial  coloration,  and  the  product 
is  subject  to  a  tax  of  10  cents  per  pound.  (Treas.  Dec.  Nos.  615,  839.) 

Regulations  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  .Revenue, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  in  regard  to  marks 
and  brands  on  packages  of  oleomargarine,  are  authorized  by  law.  They 
are  matters  of  detail  confided  to  the  Executive  branch,  the  authority 
to  make  which  is  within  the  competency  of  the  legislative  branch  to 
confer.  Courts  will  take  judicial  notice  of  them.  (Joseph  Wilkins  vs. 
United  States  (1899),  96  Fed.  Rep.,  837;  Vol.  2,  Treas.  Dec.,  No.  21623.) 

Such  power  delegated  to  the  Commissioner,  with  approval  of  the 
Secretary,  involves  no  unconstitutional  delegation  of  power  (1897). 
(In  re  Kollock,  165  U.  S.,  526,  43  Int.  Rev.  Rec.,  170;  Pratheras.  United 
States,  9  Appeal  Cases,  D.  C.,  82.) 

Taxes  imposed  by  the  oleomargarine  law  as  amended. 

SPECIAL,    TAXES 

Manufacturers  of  oleomargarine 

Wholesale  dealers  in  oleomargarine  colored  artificially  to  look  like  butter.. .  .  480 
Wholesale  dealers  in  oleomargarine  not  artificially  colored  only. . . 

Retail  dealers  in  oleomargarine  colored  artificially  to  look  like  butter 48 

Retail  dealers  in  oleomargarine  not  artificially  colored  only. .  . 

Manufacturers  of  adulterated  butter 60° 

Wholesale  dealers  in  adulterated  butter 

Retail  dealers  in  adulterated  butter 

Manufacturers  of  process  or  renovated  butter 5° 


382  Milk   and  Its   Products 


TAXES    ON    PRODUCT 

Oleomargarine  (artificially  colored),  10  cents  per  pound. 
Oleomargarine  (not  artificially  colored),  \  cent  per  pound. 
Adulterated  butter,  10  cents  per  pound. 
Process  or  renovated  butter,  1  cent  per  pound. 

THE  FILLED  CHEESE  LAW 

AN  ACT  defining  cheese,  and  also  imposing  a  tax  upon  and  regulating  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  importation  and  exportation  of  "filled  cheese." 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Sen  te  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  for  the  purposes  of  this 
act,  the  word  "cheese"  shall  be  understood  to  mean  the  food  product 
known  as  cheese,  and  which  is  made  from  milk  or  cream,  and  without 
the  addition  of  butter,  or  any  animal,  vegetable,  or  other  oils  or  fats 
foreign  to  such  milk  or  cream,  with  or  without  additional  coloring 
matter. 

SECTION  2.  That  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  certain  substances 
and  compounds  shall  be  known  and  designated  as  "filled  cheese," 
namely:  All  substances  made  of  milk  or  skimmed  milk,  with  the  admix- 
ture of  butter,  animal  oils  or  fats,  vegetable  or  any  other  oils,  or  com- 
pounds foreign  to  such  milk,  and  made  in  imitation  or  semblance  of 
cheese. 

SEC.  3.  That  special  taxes  are  imposed  as  follows: 

Manufacturers  of  filled  cheese  shall  pay  four  hundred  dollars  for 
each  and  every  factory  per  annum.  Every  person,  firm,  or  corpora- 
tion who  manufactures  filled  cheese  for  sale  shall  be  deemed  a  manu- 
facturer of  filled  cheese.  Wholesale  dealers  in  filled  cheese  shall  pay 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  annum.  Every  person,  firm,  or  cor- 
poration who  sells,  or  offers  for  sale  filled  cheese  in  the  original  manu- 
facturer's packages  for  resale,  or  to  retail  dealers  as  hereinafter  defined, 
shall  be  deemed  a  wholesale  dealer  in  filled  cheese.  But  any  manu- 
facturer of  filled  cheese  who  has  given  the  required  bond  and  paid 
the  required  special  tax,  and  who  sells  only  filled  cheese  of  his  own  pro- 
duction, at  the  place  of  manufacture,  in  the  original  packages,  to  which 
the  tax-paid  stamps  are  affixed,  shall  not  be  required  to  pay  the  special 
tax  of  a  wholesale  dealer  in  filled  cheese  on  account  of  such  sales. 

Retail  dealers  in  filled  cheese  shall  payt  twelve  dollars  per  annum. 
Every  person  who  sells  filled  cheese  at  retail,  not  for  resale,  and  for 
actual  consumption,  shall  be  regarded  as  a  retail  dealer  in  filled  cheese, 
and  sections  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-two,  thirty-two  hun- 


Dairy    Laws  383 

dred  and  thirty-three,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-four,  thirty- 
two  hundred  and  thirty-five,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-six,  thirty- 
two  hundred  and  thirty-seven,  thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-eight, 
thirty-two  hundred  and  thirty-nine,  thirty-two  hundred  and  forty, 
thirty-two  hundred  and  forty-one,  thirty-two  hundred  and  forty-three 
of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States  are,  so  far  as  applicable, 
made  to  extend  to  and  include  and  apply  to  the  special  taxes  imposed 
by  this  section  and  to  the  persons,  firms,  or  corporations  upon  whom 
they  are  imposed:  Provided,  That  all  special  taxes  under  this  act  shall 
become  due  on  the  first  day  of  July  in  every  year,  or  on  commencing 
any  manufacture,  trade,  or  business  on  which  said  tax  is  imposed. 
In  the  latter  case  the  tax  shall  be  reckoned  proportionately  from  the 
first  day  of  the  month  in  which  the  liability  to  the  special  tax  com- 
mences to  the  first  day  of  July  following. 

SEC.  4.  That  every  person,  firm,  or  corporation  who  carries  on  the 
business  of  a  manufacturer  of  filled  cheese  without  having  paid  the 
special  tax  therefor,  as  required  by  law,  shall,  besides  being  liable  to 
the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined  not  less  than  four  hundred  dollars 
and  not  more  than  three  thousand  dollars;  and  every  person,  firm,  or 
corporation  who  carries  on  the  business  of  a  wholesale  dealer  in  filled 
cheese  without  having  paid  the  special  tax  therefor,  as  required  by 
law,  shall,  besides  being  liable  to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined  not 
less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  nor  more  than  one  thousand 
dollars;  and  every  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  who  carries  on  the 
business  of  a  retail  dealer  in  filled  cheese  without  having  paid  the  spe- 
cial tax  therefor,  as  required  by  law,  shall,  besides  being  liable  for  the 
payment  of  the  tax,  be  fined  not  less  than  forty  nor  more  than  five 
hundred  dollars  for  each  and  every  offense. 

SEC.  5.  That  every  manufacturer  of  filled  cheese  shall  file  with 
the  collector  of  internal  revenue  of  the  district  in  which  his  manu- 
factory is  located  such  notices,  inventories,  and  bonds,  shall  keep 
such  books  and  render  such  returns  of  materials  and  products,  shall 
put  up  such  signs  and  affix  such  number  to  his  factory,  and  conduct 
his  business  under  such  surveillance  of  officers  and  agents  as  the  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  may  by  regulation  require.  But  the  bond  required  of 
such  manufacturer  shall  be  with  sureties  satisfactory  to  the  collector 
of  internal  revenue,  and  in  a  penal  sum  of  not  less  than  five  thousand 
dollars;  and  the  amount  of  said  bond  may  be  increased  from  time  to 
time,  and  additional  sureties  required,  at  the  discretion  of  the  collector 
or  under  instructions  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue.  Any 


384  Milk   and  Its   Products 

manufacturer  of  filled  cheese  who  fails  to  comply  with  the  provisions 
of  this  section,  or  with  the  regulations  herein  authorized,  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall  be 
fined  not  less  than  five  hundred  nor  more  than  one  thousand  dollars. 

SEC.  6.  That  filled  cheese  shall  be  packed  by  the  manufacturers 
in  wooden  packages  only,  not  before  used  for  that  purpose,  and 
marked,  stamped,  and  branded  with  the  words  "filled  cheese,"  in 
black-faced  letters  not  less  than  two  inches  in  length,  in  a  circle  in 
the  center  of  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cheese;  and  in  black-faced 
letters  of  not  less  than  two  inches  in  length  in  line  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cheese,  on  the  side  in  four  places  equidistant  from  each 
other;  and  the  package  containing  such  cheese  shall  be  marked  in  the 
same  manner  and  in  the  same  number  of  places,  and  in  the  same 
description  of  letters  as  above  provided  for  the  marking  of  the  cheese; 
and  all  sales  or  consignments  made  by  manufacturers  of  filled  cheese 
to  wholesale  dealers  in  filled  cheese  or  to  exporters  of  filled  cheese 
shall  be  in  original  stamped  packages.  Retail  dealers  in  filled  cheese 
shall  sell  only  from  original  stamped  packages,  and  shall  pack  the  filled 
cheese,  when  sold,  in  suitable  wooden  or  paper  packages  which  shall 
be  marked  and  branded  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations 
to  be  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Every  person  who  know- 
ingly sells  or  offers  to  sell,  or  delivers  or  offers  to  deliver,  filled  cheese 
in  any  other  form  than  in  new  wooden  or  paper  packages,  marked  and 
branded  as  hereinbefore  provided  and  as  above  described,  or  who  packs 
in  any  package  or  packages  filled  cheese  in  any  manner  contrary  to  law, 
or  who  falsely  brands  any  package  or  affixes  a  stamp  on  any  package 
denoting  a  less  amount  of  tax  than  that  required  by  law,  shall  upon 
conviction  thereof  be  fined  for  each  and  every  offense  not  less  than 
fifty  dollars  and  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars,  or  be  imprisoned 
not  less  than  thirty  days  nor  more  than  one  year. 

SEC.  7.  That  all  retail  and  wholesale  dealers  in  filled  cheese  shall 
display  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  his  or  their  salesroom  a  sign  bear- 
ing the  words,  "Filled  cheese  sold  here"  in  black-faced  letters  not  less 
than  six  inches  in  length,  upon  a  white  ground,  with  the  name  and 
number  of  the  revenue  district  in  which  his  or  their  business  is  con- 
ducted; and  any  wholesale  or  retail  dealer  in  filled  cheese  who  fails 
or  neglects  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  on  conviction  thereof  be  fined  for 
each  and  every  offense  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  and  not  more  than 
two  hundred  dollars. 


Dairy   Laws  385 

SEC.  8.  That  every  manufacturer  of  filled  cheese  shall  securely 
affix,  by  pasting  on  each  package  containing  filled  cheese  manufac- 
tured by  him,  a  label  on  which  shall  be  printed,  besides  the  number 
of  the  manufactory  and  the  district  and  state  in  which  it  is  situated, 
these  words:  "Notice. — The  manufacturer  of  the  filled  cheese  herein 
contained  has  complied  with  all  the  requirements  of  the  law.  Every 
person  is  cautioned  not  to  use  either  this  package  again  or  the  stamp 
thereon  again,  nor  to  remove  the  contents  of  this  package  without 
destroying  said  stamp,  under  the  penalty  provided  by  law  in  such 
cases."  Every  manufacturer  of  filled  cheese  who  neglects  to  affix  such 
label  to  any  package  containing  filled  cheese  made  by  him  or  sold  or 
offered  for  sale  by  or  for  him,  and  every  person  who  removes  any  such 
label  so  affixed  from  any  such  package,  shall  be  fined  fifty  dollars  for 
each  package  in  respect  to  which  such  offense  is  committed. 

SEC.  9.  That  upon  all  filled  cheese  which  shall  be  manufactured 
there  shall  be  assessed  and  collected  a  tax  of  one  cent  per  pound,  to 
be  paid  by  the  manufacturer  thereof;  and  any  fractional  part  of  a  pound 
in  a  package  shall  be  taxed  as  a  pound.  The  tax  levied  by  this  sec- 
tion shall  be  represented  by  coupon  stamps;  and  the  provisions  of 
existing  laws  governing  the  engraving,  issue,  sale,  accountability, 
effacement,  and  destruction  of  stamps  relating  to  tobacco  and  snuff, 
as  far  as  applicable,  are  hereby  made  to  apply  to  stamps  provided 
for  by  this  section. 

SEC.  10.  That  whenever  any  manufacturer  of  filled  cheese  sells 
or  removes  for  sale  or  consumption  any  filled  cheese  upon  which  the 
tax  is  required  to  be  paid  by  stamps,  without  paying  such  tax,  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  within  a  period 
of  not  more  than  two  years  after  such  sale  or  removal,  upon  satis- 
factory proof,  to  estimate  the  amount  of  tax  which  has  been  omitted 
to  be  paid  and  to  make  an  assessment  therefor  and  certify  the  same  to 
the  collector.  The  tax  so  assessed  shall  be  in  addition  to  the  penalties 
imposed  by  law  for  such  sale  or  removal. 

SEC.  11.  That  all  filled  cheese,  as  herein  defined,  imported  from 
foreign  countries  shall,  in  addition  to  any  import  duty  imposed  on  the 
same,  pay  an  internal  revenue  tax  of  eight  cents  per  pound,  such  tax 
to  be  represented  by  coupon  stamps;  and  such  imported  filled  cheese 
and  the  packages  containing  the  same  shall  be  stamped,  marked,  and 
branded,  as  in  the  case  of  filled  cheese  manufactured  in  the  United 
States. 

SEC.  12.  That  any  person  who  knowingly  purchases  or  receives 
for  sale  any  filled  cheese  which  has  not  been  branded  or  stamped 


386  Milk   and   Its   Products 

according  to  law,  or  which  is  contained  in  packages  not  branded 
or  marked  according  to  law,  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  fifty 
dollars  for  each  such  offense. 

SEC.  13.  That  every  person  who  knowingly  purchases  or  receives 
for  sale  any  filled  cheese  from  any  manufacturer  or  importer  who  has 
not  paid  the  special  tax  herein  provided  for  shall  be  liable,  for  each 
offense,  to  a  penalty  of  one  hundred  dollars,  and  to  a  forfeiture  of  all 
articles  so  purchased  or  received,  or  of  the  full  value  thereof. 

SEC.  14.  That  whenever  any  stamped  package  containing  filled 
cheese  is  emptied  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  person  in  whose  hands 
the  same  is  to  destroy  the  stamps  thereon;  and  any  person  who  will- 
fully neglects  or  refuses  so  to  do  shall,  for  each  such  offense,  be  fined 
not  exceeding  fifty  dollars  or  imprisoned  not  less  than  ten  days  nor 
more  than  six  months. 

SEC.  15.  That  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  is  author- 
ized to  have  applied  scientific  tests,  and  to  decide  whether  any  sub- 
stances used  in  the  manufacture  of  filled  cheese  contain  ingredients 
deleterious  to  health.  But  in  case  of  doubt  or  contest,  his  decision  in 
this  class  of  cases  may  be  appealed  from  to  a  board  hereby  constituted 
for  the  purpose,  and  composed  of  the  Surgeon-General  of  the  Army, 
the  Surgeon-General  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
and  the  decision  of  this  board  shall  be  final  in  the  premises. 

SEC.  16.  That  all  packages  of  filled  cheese  subject  to  tax  under 
this  act  that  shall  be  found  without  stamps  or  marks  as  herein  pro- 
vided, and  all  filled  cheese  intended  for  human  consumption  which 
contains  ingredients  adjudged  as  hereinbefore  provided  to  be  delete- 
rious to  the  public  health,  shall  be  forfeited  to  the  United  States. 

SEC.  17.  That  all  fines,  penalties  and  forfeitures  imposed  by  this 
act  may  be  recovered  in  any  court  of  competent  jurisdiction. 

SEC.  18.  That  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  shall  make  all  needful  regu- 
lations for  the  carrying  into  effect  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

SEC.  19.  That  this  act  shall  go  into  effect  on  the  ninetieth  day 
after  its  passage,  and  all  wooden  packages  containing  ten  or  more 
pounds  of  filled  cheese  found  on  the  premises  of  any  dealer  on 
and  after  the  ninetieth  day  succeeding  the  date  of  the  passage  of  this 
act,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  taxable  under  section  nine  of  this  act,  and 
shall  be  taxed,  and  shall  have  affixed  thereto  the  stamps,  marks,  and 
brands  required  by  this  act  or  by  regulations  made  pursuant  to  this 
act;  and  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  affixing  of  the  stamps,  marks, 
and  brands  required  by  this  act,  the  filled  cheese  shall  be  regarded  as 


Dairy    Laws  387 

having  been  manufactured  and  sold  or  removed  from  the  manufac- 
tory for  consumption  or  use  on  or  after  the  day  this  act  takes  effect; 
and  such  stock  on  hand  at  the  time  of  the  taking  effect  of  this  act  may 
be  stamped,  marked,  and  branded  under  special  regulations  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Internal  Revenue,  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury; and  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  may  authorize  the 
holder  of  such  packages  to  mark  and  brand  the  same  and  to  affix  thereto 
the  proper  tax-paid  stamps. 
Approved  June  6,  1896. 


THE  NEW  YORK  LAW 

The  law  of  the  state  of  New  York  is  typical  of  the  state  laws  gov- 
erning the  manufacture,  sale,  and  adulteration  of  dairy  products.  It 
forms  Chapter  I.  of  the  Consolidated  Laws;  the  latter  being  Chapter 
IX.  of  the  Laws  of  1909,  passed  February  17,  1909,  and  is  as  follows: 

ARTICLE  III 

Dairy  Products. 

SEC.  30.  Definitions. — The  term  "butter"  when  used  in  this  article 
means  the  product  of  the  dairy,  usually  known  by  that  term,  which 
is  manufactured  exclusively  from  pure,  unadulterated  milk  or  cream 
or  both  with  or  without  salt  or  coloring  matter;  and  the  term  "cheese" 
when  used  in  this  article,  means  the  product  of  the  dairy  usually  known 
by  that  term,  which  is  manufactured  exclusively  from  pure,  unadul- 
terated milk  or  cream,  or  both,  and  with  or  without  coloring  matter, 
salt,  rennet,  sage,  olives,  pimentos,  walnuts,  peanuts,  tomatoes,  celery 
salt  or  onions  added  thereto  as  a  flavor.  And  provided  further,  that 
when  manufactured  by  adding  to  the  elemental  product  of  the  dairy, 
usually  known  by  the  term  "cheese,"  and  manufactured  exclusively 
from  pure  unadulterated  milk  or  cream  or  both,  any  pimentos,  olives, 
walnuts,  peanuts,  celery  salt,  tomatoes,  or  onions,  that  the  percentage 
of  all  such  substances  so  added  shall  not  exceed  twenty-five  per  centum 
in  bulk  of  the  manufactured  product. 

The  terms  "oleomargarine,"  "butterine,"  "imitation  of  butter" 
or  "imitation  cheese"  shall  be  construed  to  mean  any  article  or  sub- 
stance in  the  semblance  of  butter  or  cheese  not  the  usual  product  of 
the  dairy  and  not  made  exclusively  of  pure  or  unadulterated  milk  or 


388  Milk   and   Its   Products 

cream,  or  any  such  article  or  substance  into  which  any  oil,  lard  or  fat 
not  produced  from  milk  or  cream  enters  as  a  component  part,  or  into 
which  melted  butter  or  butter  in  any  condition  or  state,  or  any  oil 
thereof  has  been  introduced  to  take  the  place  of  cream.  The  term 
"adulterated  milk"  when  so  used  means: 

1.  Milk    containing    more    than    eighty-  eight    and    one-half    per 
centum  of  water  or  fluids. 

2.  Milk   containing  less  than   eleven  and  one-half  per  centum  of 
milk  solids. 

3.  Milk  containing  less  than  three  per  centum  of  fats. 

4.  Milk  drawn  from  cows  within  fifteen  days  before  and  five  days 
after  parturition. 

5.  Milk  drawn  from  animals  fed  on  distillery  waste  or  any  sub- 
stance in  a  state  of  fermentation  or  putrefaction  or  on  any  unhealthy 
food. 

6.  Milk  drawn  from  cows  kept  in  a  crowded  or  unhealthy  con- 
dition. 

7.  Milk  from  which  any  part  of  the  cream  has  been  removed. 

8.  Milk  which  has  been  diluted  with  water  or  any  other  fluid,  or 
to  which  has  been  added  or  into  which  has  been  introduced  any  foreign 
substance  whatever. 

All  adulterated  milk  shall  be  deemed  unclean,  unhealthy,  impure 
and  unwholesome.  The  terms  "pure  milk"  or  "unadulterated  milk," 
when  used  singly  or  together,  mean  sweet  milk  not  adulterated,  and  the 
terms  "pure  cream"  or  "unadulterated  cream,"  when  used  singly  or 
together,  mean  cream  taken  from  pure  and  unadulterated  milk.  The 
term  "adulterated  cream"  when  used  shall  mean  cream  containing  less 
than  eighteen  per  centum  of  milk  fat  or  cream  to  which  any  substance 
whatsoever  has  been  added. 

SEC.  31.  Care  and  feed  of  cows,  and  care  and  keeping  of  the  produce 
from  such  cows, — No  person  shall  keep  cows,  for  the  production  of 
milk  for  market  or  for  sale  or  exchange,  or  for  manufacturing  the  milk 
or  cream  from  the  same  into  any  article  of  food,  in  a  crowded  or 
unhealthy  condition  or  in  unhealthful  or  unsanitary  surroundings  and 
no  person  shall  keep  such  cows  or  the  product  therefrom  in  such  con- 
dition or  surroundings  or  in  such  places  as  shall  cause  or  tend  to  cause 
the  produce  from  such  cows  to  be  in  an  unclean,  unhealthful  or  dis- 
eased condition,  if  the  produce  from  such  cows  is  to  be  sold,  offered  or 
exposed  for  sale  upon  the  markets  for  consumption  or  to  be  manu- 
factured into  any  food  product,  nor  shall  such  cows  or  the  produce 
therefrom  be  handled  or  cared  for  by  any  person  suffering  with  or 


Dairy   Laws  389 

affected  by  an  infectious  or  contagious  disease,  nor  shall  any  such  cows 
be  fed  on  any  substance  that  is  in  a  state  of  putrefaction  or  fermenta- 
tion, or  upon  any  food  that  is  unhealthful  or  that  produces  or  may 
produce  impure,  unhealthful,  diseased  or  unwholesome  milk.  But 
this  section  shall  not  be  construed  to  prohibit  the  feeding  of  ensilage. 
The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  is  hereby  empowered  to  give  such 
instruction  and  impart  such  information  as  in  his  judgment  may  be 
deemed  best  to  produce  a  full  observance  of  the  provisions  of  this  sec- 
tion. 

SEC.  32.  Prohibiting  the  sale  of  adulterated  milk,  imitation  cream  and 
regulating  the  sale  of  certified  milk. — No  person  shall  sell  or  exchange 
or  offer  or  expose  for  sale  or  exchange,  any  unclean,  impure,  unhealthy, 
adulterated  or  unwholesome  milk  or  any  cream  from  the  same,  or  any 
unclean,  impure,  unhealthy,-  adulterated,  colored,  or  unwholesome 
cream,  or  sell  or  exchange,  or  offer  or  expose  for  sale  or  exchange,  any 
substance  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  cream,  which  is.  not  cream,  nor 
shall  he  sell  or  exchange,  or  offer  or  expose  for  sale  or  exchange  any 
such  substance  as  and  for  cream,  or  sell  or  exchange,  or  offer  or  expose 
for  sale  or  exchange  any  article  of  food  made  from  such  milk  or  cream 
or  manufacture  from  any  such  milk  or  cream  any  article  of  food.  No 
person  shall  sell  or  exchange,  or  offer  or  expose  for  sale  or  exchange,  as 
and  for  certified  milk,  any  milk  which  does  not  conform  to  the  regu- 
lations prescribed  by  and  bear  the  certification  of  a  milk  commission 
appointed  by  a  county  medical  society  organized  under  and  chartered 
by  the  medical  society  of  the  state  of  New  York  and  which  has  not 
been  pronounced  by  such  authority  to  be  free  from  antiseptics,  added 
preservatives,  and  pathogenic  bacteria,  or  bacteria  in  excessive  numbers. 
All  milk  sold  as  certified  milk  shall  be  conspicuously  marked  with  the 
name  of  the  commission  certifying  it.  Any  person  delivering  milk  to 
any  butter  or  cheese  factory,  condensary,  milk-gathering  station  or 
railway  station  to  be  shipped  to  any  city,  town  or  village  shall  be 
deemed  to  expose  or  offer  the  same  for  sale  whether  the  said  milk  is 
delivered  or  consigned  to  himself  or  another.  Each  and  every  can 
thus  delivered,  shipped  or  consigned,  if  it  be  not  pure  milk,  must  bear 
a  label  or  card  upon  which  shall  be  stated  the  constituents  or  ingredi- 
ents of  the  contents  of  the  can. 

SEC.  33.  Regulations  in  regard  to  butter  and  cheese  factories. — No 
person  shall  sell,  supply  or  bring  to  be  manufactured  to  any  butter 
or  cheese  factory  any  milk  diluted  with  water,  or  any  unclean,  impure, 
unhealthy,  adulterated  or  unwholesome  milk,  or  milk  from  which  any 
of  the  cream  has  been  taken,  except  pure  skim  milk  to  skim-cheese 


390  Milk   and   Its   Products 

factories.  No  person  shall  sell,  supply  or  bring  to  be  manufactured  to 
any  butter  or  cheese  factory  any  milk  from  which  there  has  been  kept 
back  any  part  of  the  milk  commonly  known  as  strippings,  or  any  milk 
that  is  sour,  except  pure  skim  milk  to  skim-cheese  factories.  The  owner 
or  proprietor  or  the  person  having  charge  of  any  butter  or  cheese  fac- 
tory, not  buying  all  the  milk  used  by  him,  shall  not  use  for  his  own 
benefit,  or  allow  any  of  his  employees  or  any  other  person  to  use  for 
his  own  benefit,  any  milk,  cream,  butter  or  cheese  or  any  other  prod- 
uct thereof,  brought  to  such  factory,  without  the  consent  of  the  owners 
of  such  milk  or  the  products  thereof.  Every  butter  or  cheese  manufac- 
turer not  buying  all  the  milk  he  uses,  shall  keep  a  correct  account  of 
all  the  milk  daily  received,  of  the  number  of  packages  of  butter  and 
cheese  made  each  day,  and  the  number  of  packages  and  aggregate 
weight  of  cheese  and  butter  disposed  of  each  day;  which  account  shall 
be  open  to  inspection  to  any  person  who  delivers  milk  to  such  factory. 
Whenever  manufacturers  of  butter  or  cheese  purchase  milk  upon  the 
basis  of  the  amount  of  fat  contained  therein  and  use  for  ascertaining 
the  amount  of  such  fat  what  is  known  as  the  Babcock  test,  or  when- 
ever the  proceeds  of  co-operative  creameries  and  cheese  factories  are 
allotted  on  the  basis  of  determinations  of  milk  fat  by  the  Babcock  test, 
the  bottles  and  pipettes  used  in  such  test  shall  before  use  be  examined 
by  the  director  of  the  New  York  agricultural  experiment  station.  If 
such  bottles  are  found  to  be  properly  constructed  and  graded  so  as  to 
accurately  show  the  amount  of  fat  contained  in  milk,  each  of  them  shall 
be  legibly  and  indelibly  marked  "S.  B."  No  bottle  shall  be  so  marked 
except  as  herein  provided  or  used  in  any  such  test  by  such  manufac- 
turers, unless  so  examined  and  marked.  The  acid  used  in  making  such 
test  by  such  manufacturers  shall  be  examined  from  time  to  time  by 
competent  chemists  employed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and 
if  found  not  to  be  of  sufficient  strength  the  use  of  such  acid  shall  be 
prohibited.  No  person  or  persons  receiving  or  purchasing  milk  or  cream 
upon  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  fat  contained  therein  shall  credit  any 
patron  or  patrons  delivering  milk  or  cream  thereto  with  a  greater  or 
less  percentage  or  average  percentage  of  fat  than  is  actually  contained 
in  the  milk  or  cream  so  delivered.  The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  or 
persons  employed  by  him  for  that  purpose  may  at  any  time  assist  in 
making  tests  of  milk  received  at  a  butter  or  cheese  factory  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  efficiency  of  tests  usually  made  at  such 
factory.  All  persons  using  other  than  standard  bottles  or  acid  which  is 
not  of  the  required  strength  to  accurately  determine  the  amount  of  fats 
in  milk  or  crediting  any  patron  or  patrons  delivering  milk  or  cream 


Dairy   Laws  391 

with  a  greater  or  less  percentage  or  average  percentage  of  fat  than  is 
actually  contained  in  the  milk  or  cream  so  delivered,  shall  be  subject 
to  the  penalties  prescribed  by  Section  fifty-two  of  this  article,  and 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

SEC.  34.  Penalty  for  delivery  of  adulterated  milk. — Any  person,  firm, 
association  or  corporation  delivering  any  milk  to  any  butter  or  cheese 
factory  in  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  shall  forfeit 
and  pay  to  the  patrons,  firm,  association  or  corporation  owning  the 
milk  delivered  to  such  factory  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars,  to  be  recovered 
in  a  civil  action  by  the  person,  firm,  association  or  corporation  entitled 
thereto. 

SEC.  35.  Inspection;  how  conducted. — When  the  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  an  assistant  commissioner,  or  any  person  or  officer  author- 
ized by  the  commissioner,  or  by  this  chapter,  to  examine  or  inspect 
any  product  manufactured  or  offered  for  sale  shall  in  discharge  of  his 
duties  take  samples  of  such  product,  he  shall,  before  taking  a  sample, 
request  the  person  delivering  the  milk  or  who  has  charge  of  it  at  the 
time  of  inspection,  to  thoroughly  stir  or  mix  the  said  milk  before  the 
sample  is  taken.  If  the  person  so  in  charge  refuses  to  stir  or  mix  the  milk 
as  requested,  then  the  person  so  requesting  shall  himself  so  stir  and 
mix  the  milk  before  taking  the  sample,  and  the  defendant  shall  there- 
after be  precluded  from  introducing  evidence  to  show  that  the  milk 
so  taken  was  not  a  fair  sample  of  the  milk  delivered,  sold,  offered  or 
exposed  for  sale  by  him.  The  person  taking  the  sample  of  milk  for 
analysis  shall  take  duplicate  samples  thereof  in  the  presence  of  at  least 
one  witness,  and  he  shall  in  the  presence  of  such  witness  seal  both  of 
such  samples,  and  shall  tender,  and,  if  accepted,  deliver  at  the  time  of 
taking  one  sample  to  the  manufacturer  or  vender  of  such  product,  or 
to  the  person  having  custody  of  the  same,  with  a  statement  in  writing 
of  the  cause  of  the  taking  of  the  sample.  In  taking  samples  of  milk 
for  analysis  at  a  creamery,  factory,  platform  or  other  place  where  the 
same  is  delivered  by  the  producer  for  manufacture,  sale  or  shipment, 
or  from  a  milk  vender  who  produces  the  milk  which  he  sells,  with  a  view 
of  prosecuting  the  producer  of  such  milk  for  delivering,  selling  or  offer- 
ing for  sale  adulterated  milk,  the  said  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  or 
assistant  or  his  agent  or  agents  shall  within  ten  days  thereafter,  with 
the  consent  of  the  said  producer,  take  a  sample  in  a  like  manner  of  the 
mixed  milk  of  the  herd  of  cows  from  which  the  milk  first  sampled  was 
drawn  and  shall  deliver  the  duplicate  sample  to  the  said  producer  and 
shall  cause  the  sample  taken  by  himself  or  his  agent  to  be  analyzed.  If 
the  sample  of  milk  last  taken  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  or 


392  Milk   and   Its    Products 

his  agent  or  agents  shall  upon  analysis  prove  to  contain  no  higher  per- 
centage of  milk  solids,  or  no  higher  percentage  of  fat  than  the  sample 
taken  at  the  creamery,  factory,  platform  or  other  place,  then  no  action 
shall  lie  against  the  said  producer  for  violation  of  subdivisions  one,  two, 
three,  seven  and  eight  of  section  thirty  of  this  chapter.  In  taking  a 
second  sample  as  above  set  forth  from  the  mixed  milk  of  the  herd,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  to  have  an  assist- 
ant, agent  or  agents  present  during  the  entire  time  in  which  the  said 
cattle  are  being  milked  to  observe  closely  so  as  to  be  sure  that  the  milk 
thus  to  be  sampled  is  not  adulterated  and  to  see  that  it  is  thoroughly 
mixed  so  that  the  sample  taken  shall  be  a  fair  sample  of  the  average 
quality  of  the  mixed  milk  of  the  entire  dairy  or  herd  of  cows  of  said 
producer.  If,  however,  the  said  producer  refuses  to  allow  such  examin- 
ation of  the  milk  produced  by  his  dairy,  then  he  shall  be  precluded  from 
offering  any  evidence  whatever  tending  to  show  that  the  milk  delivered 
by  him  at  the  said  creamery,  factory,  platform  or  other  place  was  just 
as  it  came  from  the  cow.  If  the  said  producer  does  permit  such  exam- 
ination, the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  shall,  upon  receiving  appli- 
cation therefor,  send  to  said  producer  a  copy  of  the  analysis  of  each 
of  the  samples  of  milk  so  taken  and  analyzed  as  above  provided.  If 
a  sample  of  milk  shall  have  been  taken  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture or  by  his  orders  or  directions  from  any  dairy  within  this  state 
and  an  analysis  thereof  has  been  made  by  the  Commissioner  or  by  his 
authority,  any  person  who  is  or  was  buying  milk  from  the  said  dairy 
at  or  subsequent  to  the  time  of  such  taking,  may  apply  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Agriculture  for  a  copy  of  the  analysis  of  the  said  sample  of 
milk  so  taken  and  the  Commissioner  shall  thereafter  furnish  the  said 
applicant  with  such  copy. 

SEC.  36.  Branded  cans,  jars  or  bottles  not  to  be  sold,  re-marked  or  used 
without  consent  of  owner. — No  person  shall  hereafter  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  owner  or  shipper,  use,  sell,  dispose  of,  buy  or  traffic  in  any 
milk  can,  jar  or  bottle,  or  cream  can,  jar  or  bottle,  belonging  to  any 
dealer  or  shipper  of  milk  or  cream  residing  in  the  state  of  New  York 
or  elsewhere,  who  may  ship  milk  or  cream  to  any  city,  town  or  place 
within  this  state,  having  the  name  or  initials  of  the  owner,  dealer  or 
shipper,  stamped,  marked  or  fastened  on  such  can,  jar  or  bottle,  or 
wilfully  mar,  erase  or  change  by  re-marking  or  otherwise  said  name  or 
initials  of  any  such  owner,  dealer  or  shipper,  so  stamped,  marked  or 
fastened  upon  said  can,  jar  or  bottle.  Nor  shall  any  person  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner  use  such  can,  jar  or  bottle,  for  any  other  purpose 
than  for  milk  or  cream:  nor  shall  any  person  without  the  consent  of 


Dairy   Laws  393 

the  owner  place  in  any  such  can,  jar  or  bottle,  any  substance  or  product 
other  than  milk  or  cream. 

SEC.  37.  Regulations  in  regard  to  condensed  milk. — No  condensed 
milk  shall  be  made  or  offered  or  exposed  for  sale  or  exchange  unless 
manufactured  from  pure,  clean,  healthy,  fresh,  unadulterated  and 
wholesome  milk  from  which  the  cream  has  not  been  removed  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  or  unless  the  proportion  of  milk  solids  shall  be  in 
quantity  the  equivalent  of  eleven  and  one-half  per  centum  of  milk 
solids  in  crude  milk,  and  of  which  solids  twenty-five  per  centum  shall 
be  fats.  No  person  shall  manufacture,  sell  or  offer  for  sale  or  exchange 
in  hermetically  sealed  cans,  any  condensed  milk  unless  put  up  in  pack- 
ages upon  which  shall  be  distinctly  labeled  or  stamped  the  name  of  the 
person  or  corporation  by  whom  made  and  the  brand  by  whicn  or  under 
which  it  is  made.  .  When  condensed  milk  shall  be  sold  from  cans  or 
packages  not  hermetically  sealed,  the  producer  shall  brand  or  label  the 
original  cans  or  packages  with  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  of  the 
milk  contained  therein. 

SEC.  38.  Manufacture  and  sale  of  imitation  butter  prohibited. — No 
person  by  himself,  his  agents  or  employees,  shall  produce  or  manufac- 
ture out  of  or  from  any  animal  fats  or  animal  or  vegetable  oils  not  pro- 
duced from  unadulterated  milk  or  cream  from  the  same,  the  article 
known  as  oleomargarine  or  any  article  or  product  in  imitation  or  sem- 
blance of  natural  butter  produced  from  pure,  unadulterated  milk  or 
cream  of  the  same;  or  mix,  compound  with  or  add  to  milk,  cream  or 
butter  any  acids  or  other  deleterious  substance  or  any  animal  fats  or 
animal  or  vegetable  oils  not  produced  from  milk  or  cream,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce any  article  or  substance  or  any  human  food  in  imitation  or  in 
semblance  of  natural  butter,  nor  sell,  keep  for  sale  or  offer  for  sale  any 
article,  substance  or  compound,  made,  manufactured  or  produced  in 
violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  section,  whether  such  article,  sub- 
stance or  compound  shall  be  made  or  produced  in  this  state  or  else- 
where. Any  person  manufacturing,  selling,  offering  or  exposing  for 
sale  any  commodity  or  substance  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  butter, 
the  product  of  the  dairy,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  violation  of  this 
chapter,  whether  he  sells  such  commodity  or  substance  as  butter,  oleo- 
margarine or  under  any  other  name  or  designation  whatsoever  and 
irrespective  of  any  representations  he  may  make  relative  to  such  com- 
modity or  substance.  Any  dealer  in  any  article  or  product,  the  manu- 
facture or  sale  of  which  is  prohibited  by  this  section,  who  shall  keep, 
store  or  display  such  article  or  product,  with  other  merchandise  or  stock 
in  his  place  of  business,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  the  same  in  his  pos- 
session for  sale. 


394  Milk   and   Its   Products 

SEC.  39.  Manufacture  or  mixing  of  animal  fats  with  milk,  cream  or 
butter  prohibited. — No  person  shall  manufacture,  mix  or  compound  with 
or  add  to  natural  milk,  cream  or  butter  any  animal  fats  or  animal  or 
vegetable  oils,  nor  make  or  manufacture  any  oleaginous  substance  not 
produced  from  milk  or  cream,  with  intent  to  sell  the  same  as  butter 
or  cheese  made  from  unadulterated  milk  or  cream  or  have  the  same  in 
his  possession  with  such  intent;  nor  shall  any  person  solicit  or  take 
orders  for  the  same  or  offer  the  same  for  sale,  nor  shall  any  such  article 
or  substance  or  compound  so  made  or  produced,  be  sold  as  and  for 
butter  or  cheese,  the  product  of  the  dairy.  No  person  shall  coat,  powder 
or  color  with  annatto  or  any  coloring  matter  whatever,  butterine  or 
oleomargarine  or  any  compound  of  the  same  or  any  product  or  manu- 
facture made  in  whole  or  in  part  from  animal  fats  or  animal  or  vege- 
table oils  not  produced  from  unadulterated  milk  or  cream  by  means  of 
which  such  product,  manufacture  or  compound  shall  resemble  butter 
or  cheese,  the  product  of  the  dairy;  nor  shall  he  have  the  same  in  his 
possession  with  intent  to  sell  the  same  nor  shall  he  sell  or  offer  to  sell 
the  same.  No  person  by  himself,  his  agents  or  employees,  shall  manu- 
facture, sell,  offer  or  expose  for  sale,  butter  that  is  produced  by  taking 
original  packing  stock  or  other  butter  or  both  and  melting  the  same,  so 
that  the  butter  fat  can  be  drawn  off,  then  mixing  the  said  butter  fat 
with  skimmed  milk  or  milk  or  cream  or  other  milk  product  and  rechurn- 
ing  the  said  mixture,  or  that  is  produced  by  any  similar  process  and  is 
commonly  known  as  boiled  or  process  butter,  unless  he  shall  plainly  brand 
or  mark  the  package  or  tub  or  wrapper  in  which  the  same  is  put  up 
in  a  conspicuous  place  with  the  words  "renovated  butter"  or  "process 
butter."  If  the  same  shall  be  put  up,  sold,  offered  or  exposed  for  sale 
in  prints  or  rolls,  then  the  said  prints  or  rolls  shall  be  labeled  plainly 
with  printed  letters  in  a  conspicuous  place  on  the  wrapper  with  the 
words  "renovated  butter"  or  "process  butter."  If  the  same  is  packed 
in  tubs  or  boxes  or  pails  or  other  kind  of  a  case  or  package  the  words 
"renovated  butter"  or  "process  butter"  shall  be  printed  on  the  top  and 
side  of  the  same  in  letters,  at  least,  one  inch  in  length,  so  as  to  be  plainly 
seen  by  the  purchaser.  If  such  butter  is  exposed  for  sale,  uncovered, 
not  in  a  package  or  case,  a  placard  containing  the  label  so  printed  shall 
be  attached  to  the  mass  of  butter  in  such  manner  as  to  easily  be  seen 
and  read  by  the  purchaser.  Every  person  selling,  offering  or  exposing 
for  sale  at  retail,  "renovated  butter"  or  "process  butter,"  shall  cause 
each  parcel  or  package  of  such  butter  delivered  to  or  for  a  customer 
to  be  wrapped  in  a  light-colored  paper  on  which  shall  be  printed  in  black 
letters,  not  less  than  three-eighths  inch  square  and  in  Gothic  type,  the 


Dairy   Laws  395 

words  "renovated  butter"  or  "process  butter."  No  person  shall  sell, 
offer  or  expose  for  sale,  any  butter  or  other  dairy  products  containing 
a  preservative,  but  this  shall  not  be  construed  to  prohibit  the  use  of 
salt  in  butter  or  cheese,  or  spirituous  liquors  in  club  or  other  fancy  cheese 
or  sugar  in  condensed  milk.  No  person,  firm,  association  or  corpo- 
ration shall  induce  or  attempt  to  induce  any  person  to  violate  any  of 
the  provisions  of  this  chapter.  Any  person,  firm,  association  or  cor- 
poration selling,  offering  or  advertising  for  sale  any  substance,  prepara- 
tion or  matter  for  use  in  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  chapter 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  violation  of  this  section. 

SEC.  40.  Prohibited  articles  not  to  be  furnished  for  use. — No  keeper 
or  proprietor  of  any  bakery,  hotel,  boarding-house,  restaurant,  saloon, 
lunch-counter  or  place  of  public  entertainment,  nor  any  pefSon  having 
charge  thereof  or  employed  thereat,  nor  any  person  furnishing  board 
for  any  others  than  members  of  his  own  family,  or  for  any  employees 
where  such  board  is  furnished  for  a  compensation  or  as  part  of  the  com- 
pensation of  any  such  employee,  shall  keep,  use  or  serve  therein  either 
as  food  for  his  guests,  boarders,  patrons,  customers  or  employees  or  for 
cooking  purposes  any  article  or  substance  made  in  violation  of  the  pro- 
visions of  this  article.  Any  keeper  or  proprietor  of  any  hotel,  boarding- 
house,  restaurant,  saloon,  lunch-counter  or  place  of  public  entertain- 
ment who  uses  or  serves  therein  for  his  guests  any  oleaginous  substance 
as  a  substitute  for  butter,  the  manufacture  or  sale  of  which  is  not  pro- 
hibited by  the  agricultural  law,  shall  print  plainly  and  conspicuously 
on  the  bill-of-fare,  if  there  is  one,  the  words,  "Oleomargarine  Used 
Here"  and  shall  post  up  conspicuously  in  different  parts  of  each  room 
where  such  meals  are  served,  signs  in  places  where  they  can  be  easily 
seen  and  read,  which  shall  bear  the  words,  "Oleomargarine  Used  Here" 
in  letters  at  least  two  inches  in  length  and  so  printed  as  to  be  easily 
read  by  guests  or  boarders. 

SEC.  41.  Coloring  matter,  dairy  terms,  size  of  package,  labeling,  pen- 
alties.— No  person  manufacturing  with  intent  to  sell  any  substance  or 
article  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  butter  or  cheese  not  made  exclu- 
sively from  unadulterated  milk  or  cream  or  both,  with  salt  or  rennet 
or  both  and  with  or  without  coloring  matter  or  sage,  but  into  which 
any  animal,  intestinal  or  offal  fats,  or  any  oils  or  fats  or  oleaginous  sub- 
stance of  any  kind  not  produced  from  pure,  unadulterated  milk  or 
cream,  or  into  which  melted  butter,  or  butter  in  any  condition  or  state 
or  any  modification  of  the  same,  or  lard  or  tallow  shall  be  introduced, 
shall  add  thereto  or  combine  therewith  any  annatto  or  compounds  of 
the  same,  or  any  other  substance  or  substances  whatever,  for  the  pur- 


396  Milk   and   Its   Products 

pose  or  with  the  effect  of  imparting  thereto  a  color  resembling  yellow, 
or  any  shade  of  yellow  butter  or  cheese,  nor  introduce  any  such  color- 
ing matter  or  other  substance  into  any  of  the  articles  of  which  the  same 
is  composed.  And  no  person  selling  any  oleaginous  substance  not  made 
from  pure  milk  or  cream  of  the  same  as  a  substitute  for  butter  shall 
sell,  give  away  or  deliver  with  such  substance  any  coloring  matters 
nor  shall  any  person  manufacturing,  selling  or  offering  for  sale  any 
such  goods  make  or  sell  them  under  any  brand,  device  or  label  bearing 
words  indicative  of  cows  or  the  product  of  the  dairy  or  the  names  of 
breeds  of  cows  or  cattle,  nor  use  terms  indicative  of  processes  in  the  dairy 
in  making  or  preparing  butter;  no  such  substance  shall  hereafter  be 
sold,  offered  or  exposed  for  sale  in  this  state  except  it  be  sold  in  pack- 
ages containing  not  more  than  five  pounds,  such  packages  to  be  wrapped 
and  sealed,  the  original  seal  of  which  shall  be  unbroken  and  upon  which 
seal  shall  be  plainly  printed  the  name  and  address  of  the  manufacturer 
of  said  oleomargarine,  and  the  said  packages  shall  be  plainly  and  con- 
spicuously labeled  with  the  word  "Oleomargarine"  in  Gothic  or  equally 
conspicuous  letters  at  least  three-eighths  of  an  inch  high.  The  word 
"Oleomargarine"  in  large  prominent  letters  shall  be  stamped  by  inden- 
tation on  each  separate  brick  or  portion  of  the  substance  itself  before 
it  is  wrapped  and  sealed. 

Any  person  violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  sections  forty  or  forty- 
one  of  the  agricultural  law  shall  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  to  the  people 
of  the  state  of  New  York  of  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than 
one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  violation  and  not  less  than  two  hun- 
dred dollars  nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  for  the  second  and 
each  subsequent  violation.  Whoever  by  himself  or  another  violates 
any  of  the  provisions  of  sections  forty  or  forty-one  of  the  agricultural 
law  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  upon  conviction  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  nor  more  than 
five  hundred  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  of  not  less  than  one  month 
nor  more  than  one  year  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment  for  the 
first  offense  and  by  not  less  than  six  months  nor  more  than  one  year 
for  the  second  offense. 

SEC.  42.  Coloring  matter  in  food  products;  analysis  by  state  board 
of  health. — No  person  or  persons  shall  manufacture,  sell  or  expose  for 
sale  any  poisonous  coloring  matter  for  the  coloring  of  food  products 
of  any  kind,  nor  shall  any  person  or  persons  use  any  poisonous  coloring 
matter  manufactured,  sold,  offered  or  exposed  for  sale  within  this  state; 
nor  shall  any  person  or  persons  sell,  offer  or  expose  for  sale  any  food 
product  containing  such  poisonous  coloring  matter.  The  state  com- 


Dairy    Laws  397 

missioner  of  health  shall  cause  samples  of  coloring  matter  that  are 
exposed  for  sale  upon  the  market  for  use  in  food  products  to  be  analyzed 
and  report  the  results  of  such  analysis  to  the  legislature  at  the  next 
session. 

SEC.  43.  Manufacture  and  sale  of  imitation  cheese  prohibited. — No 
person  shall  manufacture,  deal  in,  sell,  offer  or  expose  for  sale 
or  exchange  any  article  or  substance,  in  the  semblance  of  or  in  imita- 
tion of  cheese  made  exclusively  of  unadulterated  milk  or  cream,  or  both, 
into  which  any  animal,  intestinal  or  offal  fats  or  oils,  or  melted  butter 
or  butter  in  any  condition  or  state  or  modification  of  the  same,  or 
oleaginous  substances  of  any  kind  not  produced  from  unadulterated 
milk  or  cream,  shall  be  introduced. 

SEC.  44.  When  prohibitions  do  not  apply  to  skim  milk  or  skim  cheese. 
— Except  in  the  counties  of  New  York  and  Kings,  the  prohibitions  con- 
tained in  this  article  against  the  sale  of  adulterated  milk  shall  not 
apply  to  skim  milk,  which  is  clean,  pure,  healthy,  wholesome  and 
unadulterated,  except  by  skimming,  sold  for  use  in  the  county  in  which 
it  is  produced  or  an  adjoining  county,  if  It  is  sold  for  and  as  skimmed 
milk.  The  prohibitions  in  this  article  against  the  sale  of  cheese  made 
from  unadulterated*  milk  or  cream,  shall  not  apply  to  pure  skim- 
cheese  made  from  milk  which  is  clean,  pure,  healthy,  wholesome  and 
unadulterated,  except  by  skimming. 

SEC.  45.  Unclean  receptacles  and  places  for  keeping  milk;  notice  to 
violators  of  provisions. — No  person,  firm,  association  or  corporation, 
producing,  buying  or  receiving  milk  for  the  purpose  of  selling  the  same 
for  consumption  as  such,  or  for  manufacturing  the  same  into  butter, 
cheese,  condensed  milk,  or  other  human  food,  shall  keep  the  same  in 
utensils,  cans,  vessels,  rooms,  or  buildings  that  are  unclean  or  have 
unsanitary  surroundings  or  drainage  or  in  any  condition  whatsoever 
that  would  tend  to  produce  or  promote  conditions  favorable  to  unhealth- 
fulness  or  disease.  The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  shall  notify  all 
persons,  firms,  associations  or  corporations,  violating  this  section,  to 
clean  said  utensils,  cans,  vessels,  rooms  or  buildings,  or  to  so  improve 
the  sanitary  conditions  that  the  law  will  not  be  violated,  and  if  such 
notice  is  complied  within  ten  days'  time,  Sundays  excepted,  then  no 
action  shall  lie  for  a  violation  of  this  section.  Any  person  having  charge 
of  any  milk-gathering  station  where  milk  is  bought  or  received  from 
the  dairymen  for  the  purpose  of  selling  the  same  for  consumption  or 
shipping  the  same  to  market  for  consumption  as  human  food  before 


*So  in  the  original. 


398  Milk  and   Its   Products 

taking  such  charge  or  operating  or  working  as  such  agent  or  person  in 
charge  shall  apply  to  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  a  license  to  so 
work  or  operate  or  have  charge,  and  shall  at  the  time  of  making  such 
application,  file  with  the  Commissioner  a  statement  under  oath,  setting 
forth  the  fact  that  he  will  not  while  having  charge  of  or  operating  any 
such  milk-gathering  establishment  or  while  employed  therein  adulter- 
ate or  suffer  or  permit  the  adulteration  of  any  such  milk  or  any  prod- 
uct thereof  during  the  term  for  which  he  may  be  licensed.  After  the 
applicant  shall  have  complied  with  the  foregoing  provisions  of  this 
section,  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  upon  being  satisfied  that  the 
applicant  is  a  person  of  good  moral  character  and  a  qualified  and  proper 
person  to  so  have  charge  of  or  operate  any  such  milk-gathering  station 
or  establishment  shall  issue  to  said  applicant  a  license,  which  shall 
qualify  him  to  have  charge  of  any  such  milk-gathering  station  or  estab- 
lishment for  the  period  of  two  years  from  the  date  of  such  license.  The 
person  regularly  doing  the  work  of  receiving,  caring  for  and  shipping 
the  milk  at  any  station  or  establishment,  or  in  case  more  than  one 
person  is  so  employed  then  the  foreman  in  charge  of  such  works  shall 
be  deemed  to  be  a  person  in  charge  of  such  station  or  establishment 
within  the  meaning  and  purposes  of  this  section.  Such  a  license  certifi- 
cate shall  be  kept  at  such  station  or  establishment  where  the  licensee 
is  so  employed  and  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  public.  Any  person 
having  charge  of  any  milk-gathering  station  or  establishment  as  afore- 
said shall  keep  a  true  and  correct  monthly  record  of  the  receipts  of  milk 
or  other  dairy  products  received  at  such  station  or  establishment,  and 
also  a  true  and  correct  monthly  record  of  all  sales  or  shipments  of  milk, 
cream  or  other  dairy  products  shipped  or  sold  from  such  station  or 
establishment,  and  shall  also  keep  a  true  and  correct  monthly  record 
of  the  amount  of  skim  milk  produced  in  such  station  or  establishment 
and  of  the  disposition  of  said  skim  milk.  Such  record  shall  be  preserved 
at  such  station  or  establishment  for  at  least  two  years  after  the  same 
shall  have  been  made  and  such  records  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to 
the  inspection  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  his  assistants  or 
agents.  When  cream  is  sold  or  shipped  from  any  such  station  or  estab- 
lishment so  selling  or  shipping  milk  for  consumption  as  aforesaid,  each 
original  bottle  or  package  of  one  quart  or  less  of  cream  so  shipped  or 
sold  shall  bear  a  label  securely  attached  to  the  side  of  such  bottle  or 
package  on  which  shall  be  conspicuously  printed  the  word  "cream" 
in  black  letters  of  at  least  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  or  else  the  word 
"cream"  shall  be  blown  in  the  side  of  such  bottle  in  plain  raised  letters 


Dairy   Laws  399 

of  at  least  one-half  an  inch  in  length,  and  the  top  and  side  of  each  and 
every  other  original  package  or  can  containing  cream  or  original  crate 
or  case  containing  bottles  of  cream  so  shipped  or  sold  shall  bear  a  label 
securely  attached  on  which  shall  be  conspicuously  printed  the  word 
"cream"  in  black  letters  of  at  least  one  inch  in  length  and  also  a  plainly 
written  or  printed  statement  on  the  label  stating  from  whom  and  what 
station  the  same  is  shipped  and  the  name  of  the  consignee  and  point 
of  destination  and  the  date  on  which  the  cream  therein  was  produced 
by  such  separation  or  skimming.  The  shipment  of  each  and  every 
such  original  package  of  cream  so  shipped  and  not  so  labeled  as  herein 
required  shall  constitute  a  separate  violation.  When  cream  is  so  sepa- 
rated or  skimmed  from  milk  at  any  such  station  or  establishment  and  the 
supply  of  milk  on  hand  thereat  at  the  time  of  the  next  regular  daily 
shipment  of  milk  therefrom,  consisting  of  the  total  amount  of  milk  in 
such  shipment,  together  with  that  remaning  on  hand  immediately 
after  such  shipment,  is  not  thereby  decreased  or  correspondingly  less 
than  the  total  quantity  received  during  any  period  extending  from  some 
point  of  time  before  such  skimming  was  done  until  the  time  of  such 
shipment,  together  with  the  amount  of  milk  on  hand  at  the  commence- 
ment of  such  period,  and  such  decrease  is  not  equal  in  amount  to  the 
quantity  of  milk  that  must  have  been  used  in  so  separating  such  cream 
in  addition  to  the  quantity  otherwise  there  used  or  disposed  of  during 
such  period,  such  fact  is  conclusive  that  skim  milk  or  other  foreign 
substance  was  added  to  such  milk  supply  within  such  period  and  shall 
be  presumptive  evidence  within  the  meaning  of  this  section  that  the 
same  was  added  to  each  can  or  vessel  of  milk  in  such  shipment.  When 
cream  or  skim  milk  is  found  to  have  been  on  the  premises  of  any  such 
station  or  establishment  or  is  sold  or  shipped  therefrom,  such  cream 
or  skim  milk  so  found  or  so  sold  or  shipped  therefrom  shall  be  presumed 
to  have  been  produced  by  separating  or  skimming  at  such  station  or 
establishment.  In  any  action  or  proceeding  relative  to  the  adulte- 
ration of  milk  by  removing  cream  therefrom  or  adding  skim  milk  or 
other  foreign  substance  thereto,  it  shall  be  presumed  that  when  cream 
has  been  produced  by  so  skimming  or  separating  or  butter  has  been 
manufactured,  there  was  made  at  least  five  quarts  of  milk  in  the  pro- 
duction of  each  quart  of  cream  so  produced  and  there  was  necessarily 
so  produced  thereby  at  least  four  quarts  of  skim  milk  to  each  quart  of 
cream  so  produced,  and  that  there  was  used  at  least  nine  quarts  of  milk 
in  the  production  of  each  pound  of  butter  so  manufactured.  If  any 
such  person  so  duly  licensed  shall  thereafter  refuse  or  neglect  to  keep 
and  preserve  full  and  complete  records  as  herein  required  or  shall  refuse 


400  Milk   and  Its   Products 

to  exhibit  such  records  to  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  his  assistants 
or  agents  or  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  section  or  any  of 
the  provisions  of  this  chapter  relative  to  milk  or  the  products  thereof 
he  shall  forfeit  his  license  and  shall  be  disqualified  for  a  period  of 
five  years  from  being  again  licensed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture. 

SEC.  46.  Unsanitary  cans  and  receptacles  condemned. — All  cans,  or 
receptacles  used  in  the  sale  of  milk,  cream  or  curd  for  consumption, 
or  in  transporting  or  shipping  the  same  to  market  or  the  delivery  thereof 
to  purchasers  for  consumption  as  human  food,  when  found  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture  or  his  assistants  or  agents  to  be  in  unfit  con- 
dition to  be  so  used  by  reason  of  being  worn  out,  badly  rusted,  or  with 
rusted  inside  surface,  or  unclean  or  unsanitary  or  in  such  condition 
that  they  can  not  be  rendered  clean  and  sanitary  by  washing,  and  will 
tend  to  produce  or  promote  in  milk,  cream  or  curd  when  contained 
therein,  bad  flavors,  unclean  or  unwholesome  conditions  favorable  to 
unhealthfulness  or  disease,  shall  be  condemned  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture  or  his  assistants  or  agents.  Every  such  can  or  receptacle 
when  so  condemned  shall  be  marked  by  a  stamp,  impression  or  device, 
designed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  showing  that  it  has  been 
so  condemned,  and  when  so  condemned  shall  not  thereafter  be  used  by 
any  person  for  the  purpose  of  so  selling,  transporting  or  shipping  milk, 
cream  or  curd. 

SEC.  47.  Receptacles  to  be  cleansed  before  returning;  receptacles  may 
be  seized;  evidence;  violation;  milk  can  inspectors. — Whenever  any  can 
or  receptacle  is  used  for  transporting  or  conveying  milk,  cream  or  curd 
to  market  for  the  purpose  of  selling  or  furnishing  the  same  for  con- 
sumption as  human  food,  which  can  or  receptacle,  when  emptied,  is 
returned  or  intended  to  be  returned  to  the  person  so  selling,  furnish- 
ing or  shipping  such  substance  to  be  again  thus  used,  or  which  is  liable 
to  continued  use  in  so  transporting,  conveying,  selling  or  shipping  such 
substance  as  aforesaid,  the  consumer,  dealer  or  consignee  using,  selling 
or  receiving  the  milk,  cream  or  curd  from  such  can  or  receptacle,  shall, 
before  so  returning  such  can  or  receptacle  remove  all  substances  for- 
eign to  milk  therefrom,  by  rinsing  with  water  or  otherwise.  When  any 
such  milk,  cream  or  curd  is  sold  within  any  city  of  this  State  or  shipped 
into  any  such  city,  the  fact  of  such  shipment  or  sale  shall  be  prima 
facie  evidence  that  the  same  was  so  shipped  or  sold  for  consumption 
as  human  food.  When  any  such  can  or  receptacle  is  returned  or  deliv- 
ered or  shipped  to  any  person  or  creamery  so  selling  such  substance 
within,  or  shipping  the  same  into  such  city,  it  is  deemed  that  such  can 


Dairy    Laws  401 

or  receptacle  is  liable  to  such  continued  use  in  so  selling  or  shipping 
such  substance  therein  for  consumption  as  human  food  within  the 
meaning  and  purposes  of  this  section  and  section  forty-six.  No  person 
shall  place  or  suffer  to  be  placed  in  any  such  can  or  receptacle  any 
sweepings,  refuse,  dirt,  litter,  garbage,  filth  or  any  other  animal  or  vege- 
table substance,  nor  shall  any  such  consignee  or  other  person  through 
himself,  his  agent  or  employee,  bring  or  deliver  to  any  person  or  rail- 
road or  other  conveyance  any  such  can  or  receptacle  for  the  purpose 
of  such  return,  or  any  milk,  cream  or  curd  can  or  receptacle  for  the 
purpose  of  delivery  or  shipment  to  any  person  or  creamery  engaged  in 
so  selling  or  shipping  such  substances  for  consumption  as  human  food, 
which  can  or  receptacle  contains  such  foreign  substance  or  which  has 
not  been  rinsed  as  herein  provided.  The  word  "curd"  as  iioed  in  this 
section  and  section  forty-six  applies  to  the  substance  othe'rwise  known 
as  "pot  cheese"  or  "cottage  cheese."  Whenever  any  such  can  or  recep- 
tacle is  used,  returned,  delivered  or  shipped  in  violation  of  this  section, 
or  of  section  forty-six  of  this  chapter,  every  such  use,  return,  delivery 
or  shipment  of  each  such  can  or  receptacle  shall  be  deemed  a  separate 
violation  thereof.  Such  cans  or  receptacles  so  used,  returned,  deliv- 
ered or  shipped  In  violation  of  this  section  or  of  section  forty-six  may  be 
seized  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  his  assistants  or  agents  and 
held  as  evidence  of  such  violation.  For  the  proper  enforcement  of  this 
section  and  section  forty-six,  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  may 
appoint  two  milk  can  inspectors  to  be  stationed  chiefly  in  the  city  of 
New  York  who  shall  receive  the  usual  compensation  of  other  agents 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

SEC.  48.  Manufacturer's  brand  of  cheese. — Every  manufacturer  of 
whole-milk  cheese  may  put  a  brand  or  label  upon  such  cheese  indi- 
cating "whole-milk  cheese"  and  the  date  of  the  month  and  year  when 
made ;  and  no  person  shall  use  such  a  brand  or  label  upon  any  cheese 
made  from  milk  from  which  any  of  the  cream  has  been  taken.  The 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  shall  procure  and  issue  to  the  cheese  manu- 
facturers of  the  State,  on  proper  application  therefor,  and  under  such 
regulations  as  to  the  custody  and  use  thereof  as  he  may  prescribe,  a 
uniform  stencil  brand  or  labels  bearing  a  suitable  device  or  motto, 
and  the  words,  "New  York  State  whole-milk  cheese."  Every  such 
brand  or  label  shall  be  used  -upon  the  outside  of  the  cheese  and  shall 
bear  a  different  number  for  each  separate  factory.  The  Commissioner 
shall  keep  a  book,  in  which  shall  be  registered  the  name,  location  and 
number  of  each  manufactory  using  the  brands  or  labels,  and  the  name 
or  names  of  the  persons  at  each  manufactory  authorized  to  use  the 


402  Milk  and  Its   Products 

same.  No  such  brand  or  labels  shall  be  used  upon  any  other  than  whole- 
milk  cheese  or  packages  containing  the  same. 

SEC.  49.  Use  of  false  brand  prohibited. — No  person  shall  offer,  sell, 
or  expose  for  sale,  in  any  package,  butter  or  cheese-  which  is  falsely 
branded  or  labeled. 

SEC.  50.  County  trade  marks. — At  a  regular  or  special  meeting  of 
a  county  dairymen's  association  in  any  .county  of  the  State  there  may 
be  adopted  a  county  trade  mark,  by  a  majority  of  the  members  present 
and  voting,  to  be  used  as  a  trade  mark  by  a  person  manufacturing 
pure  unadulterated  butter  or  full-cream  cheese  in  such  county.  The 
secretary  of  the  association  shall  forthwith  send  to  the  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture  a  copy  of  such  trade  mark,  which  copy  he  shall  place  on  file 
in  his  office,  noting  thereupon  the  day  and  hour  he  received  the  same. 
But  one  county  trade  mark  for  butter  and  for  cheese  shall  be  placed 
on  file  for  the  same  county.  No  association  shall  adopt  any  trade 
mark  of  any  county  already  on  file,  or  use  that  of  any  other  county  in 
the  formation  of  a  trade  mark. 

SEC.  51.  Object  and  intent  of  this  article. — This  article  and  each  sec- 
tion thereof  are  declared  to  be  enacted  to  prevent  deception  in  the  sale 
of  dairy  products,  and  to  preserve  the  public  health,  which  is  endangered 
by  the  manufacture,  sale  and  use  of  the  articles  or  substances  herein 
regulated  or  prohibited. 

SEC.  52.  Penalties.— -Every  person  violating  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  chapter,  shall  forfeit  to  the  people  of  the  State  of  New  York  the 
sum  of  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars 
for  the  first  violation  and  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  nor  more 
than  two  hundred  dollars  for  the  second  and  each  subsequent  violation. 
When  such  violation  consists  of  the  manufacture  or  production  of  any 
prohibited  article,  each  day  during  which  or  any  part  of  which  such 
manufacture  or  production  is  carried  on  or  continued,  shall  be  deemed 
a  separate  violation.  When  the  violation  consists  of  the  sale,  or  the 
offering  or  exposing  for  sale  or  exchange  of  any  prohibited  article  or 
substance,  the  sale  of  each  one  of  several  packages  shall  constitute  a 
separate  violation,  and  each  day  on  which  any  such  article  or  substance 
is  offered  or  exposed  for  sale  or  exchange  shall  constitute  a  separate 
violation.  When  the  use  of  any  such  article  or  substance  is  prohibited, 
each  day  during  which  or  any  part  of  which  said  article  or  substance 
is  so  used  or  furnished  for  use,  shall  constitute  a  separate  violation, 
and  the  furnishing  of  the  same  for  use  to  each  person  to  whom  the  same 
may  be  furnished  shall  constitute  a  separate  violation.  Whoever  by 
himself  or  another  violates  any  of  the  provisions  of  articles  three,  four, 


Dairy   Laws  403 

six,  eight  and  nine  or  sections  three  hundred  fourteen  and  three  hun- 
dred fifteen  of  this  chapter  or  of  sections  one  hundred  six,  one  hundred 
seven  and  one  hundred  eight  of  this  chapter  shall  be  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  upon  conviction  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  fifty  dollars,  nor  more  than  two  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprison- 
ment of  not  less  than  one  month  nor  more  than  six  months  or  by  both 
such  fine  and  imprisonment,  for  the  first  offense;  and  by  six  months' 
imprisonment  for  the  second  offense. 

SEC.  53.  Butterine  and  similar  products  not  to  be  purchased  by  cer- 
tain institutions. — No  money  appropriated  by  law  for  maintenance  and 
support  in  whole  or  in  part  of  a  State  institution;  nor  money  received 
by  a  charitable,  benevolent,  penal  or  reformatory  institution  from  the 
State  or  from  a  county,  city  or  town  thereof  appropriated  by  such 
county,  city  or  town,  for  the  maintenance  or  support  Tn  whole  or  in 
part  of  such  institution;  nor  money  belonging  to  or  used  for  the  main- 
tenance or  support  of  such  institution,  shall  be  expended  for  the  pur- 
chase of,  or  in  payment  for,  butterine,  oleomargarine,  lard,  cheese,  or 
articles  or  products  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  natural  butter  or  cheese 
produced  from  pure  unadulterated  milk  or  cream  from  the  same,  which 
articles  or  products  have  been  rendered  or  manufactured  in  whole  or 
in  part  from  animal  fats,  or  animal  or  vegetable  oils  not  produced  from 
unadulterated  milk  or  cream  from  the  same. 

SEC.  54.  Purchase,  sale  and  use  of  butterine  and  similar  products 
prohibited  in  certain  institutions. — No  officer,  manager,  superintendent 
or  agent  of  an  institution  mentioned  in  section  fifty-three  of  this  chapter, 
shall  purchase  for  the  use  of  such  institution  articles  or  products,  for 
the  purchase  of  which  the  money  appropriated  by  law,  or  by  a  county, 
city  or  town,  is  forbidden  to  be  used  by  section  fifty-three  of  this  chap- 
ter, and  no  person  shall  sell  to,  or  for  the  use  of  such  institution,  such 
articles  or  products.  Nor  shall  such  articles  or  products  be  used  as 
articles  of  food  or  for  cooking  purposes  in  such  institutions  within  this 
State. 


404  Milk   and   Its   Products 


D.    REFERENCES   TO   AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT 
STATION  REPORTS  AND  BULLETINS 

The  following  references  will  aid  the  student  who  desires  to  make 
a  more  thorough  study  of  the  subjects  discussed.  They  are  taken 
wholly  from  the  literature  of  American  agricultural  investigations, 
and  include  only  some  of  the  more  important  articles.  The  Experi- 
ment Station  Record  and  the  Handbook  of  Experiment  Station  Work, 
both  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  contain  many 
condensed  results  of  dairy  investigation. 

CHAPTER  I 

Studies  in  Milk  Secretion.    Indiana  Bull.  No.  24,  pp.  13-16. 
'    How  is  Milk  Formed?    Nevada  Bull.  No.  16,  pp.  4-5. 
Elaboration  of  Milk.    Ontario  Kept,  for  1893,  pp.  165-166. 
Dividing  Milkings.    Indiana  Bull.  No.  24,  pp.  10-13. 
Milking  Two  and  Three  Times  per  Day.    Vermont  Kept,  for  1890, 
pp.  90-96. 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Composition  of  Milk.    Ontario  Bull.  No.  39. 

The  Mineral  Ingredients  of  Milk.  Maine  Kept,  for  1890,  Part 
II.,  pp.  52-57. 

The  Constitution  of  Milk,  and  Some  of  the  Conditions  Which  Affect 
the  Separation  of  Cream.  Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  18. 

Conditions  Affecting  the  Consistency  of  Milk.  Wisconsin  Kept, 
for  1896,  pp.  73-80. 

Chemistry  of  Dairy  Products.    Ontario  Rept.  for  1890,  pp.  237-241. 

Milk  Analysis.    Connecticut  Rept.  for  1886,  pp.  119-130. 

Investigations  Relating  to  the  Composition  of  Milk.  Wisconsin 
Rept.  for  1890,  pp.  114-119. 

Fibrin  in  Milk.    Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1893,  pp.  143-145. 

Relation  of  Fat  and  Casein  in  Milk.  Vermont  Rept.  for  1890,  pp. 
97-100. 

The  Composition,  Creaming  and  Churning  of  Colostrum.  Vermont 
Rept.  for  1891,  pp.  104-108. 

The  Fat  Globules  of  Milk.  New  York  Rept.  for  1885,  pp.  266- 
275;  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1894,  pp.  223-239;  Ontario  Rept.  for  1885, 
pp.  127-130. 


References  405 

The  Effects  of  Feed  Upon  the  Quality  of  Milk.  Iowa  Bull.  No.  14, 
pp.  123-142;  New  Hampshire  Rept.  for  1893,  pp.  138-155,  and  Bull. 
No.  9;  Bull.  No.  16;  Bull.  No.  18;  Bull.  No.  20. 

Tests  of  Several  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cows.  A  Study  of  Dairy  Prod- 
ucts. Maine  Rept.  for  1889,  pp.  106-134.  The  test  is  continued  in 
Rept.  fqr  1890,  Part  II.,  pp.  17-42. 

Corn  Silage  for  Milch  Cows.  New  York  (State)  Bull.  No.  97,  New 
Series. 

Investigations  of  the  Several  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle.  New  York 
(State)  Reports  for  1891,  1892,  1893,  1894. 

On  the  Effects  of  Feeding  Fat  to  Cows.  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull. 
No.  92. 

Variations  in  Milk.    Illinois  Bull.  No.  17,  pp.  9-16,  an«^Bull.  No.  24. 

The  Influence  of  Advancing  Lactation  upon  the  Production  of  But- 
ter and  Cheese.  New  York  (State)  Rept.  for  1891,  pp.  369-389. 

Effects  of  Drouth  upon  Milk  Production.  New  York  (State)  Bull. 
No.  105.  New  Series. 

Variations  in  Milk.   Vermont  Rept.  for  1891,  pp.  61-74. 

Variations  in  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Milk.  Vermont  Rept.  for 
1892,  pp.  90-119,  and  Bull.  No.  38. 

The  Composition  of  Milk  as  Affected  by  Methods  of  Milking. 
Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1889,  pp.  44,  51,  61. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Milk  Tests.    (Short,  Lactoscope) .    Illinois  Bull.  No.  9,  pp.  293-302. 

Investigation  of  Milk  Tests.  (Short,  Parsons,  Failyer  and  Willard, 
Cochran,  Patrick),  Illinois  Bull.  No.  10. 

Milk  Tests:  Methods  of  Testing  Milk.  (Patrick,  Babcock,  Beim- 
ling,  Gravimetric.)  Illinois  Bull.  No.  14,  pp.  462-467. 

Methods  of  Testing  Milk.  (Short,  Patrick,  Cochran,  Babcock, 
Beimling.)  West  Viiginia  Bull.  No.  13,  pp.  41-63. 

Testing  Milk.  (Short,  Patrick,  Cochran,  Babcock,  Soxhlet,  Beim- 
ling.) West  Virginia  Report  for  1890,  pp.  68-88. 

A  New  Volumetric  Method  for  the  Estimation  of  Fat  in  Milk, 
Skimmed  Milk,  Buttermilk  and  Cream.  (Parsons.)  New  Hampshire 
Report  for  1888,  pp.  69-  83. 

Babcock  and  Beimling  Tests.  Ontario  Report  for  1891,  pp.  183- 
184. 

Simple  Methods  of  Determining  Milk  Fat.  (Short,  Cochran,  Gravi- 
metric.) Pennsylvania  Bull.  No.  12. 


406  Milk   and  Its   Products 

Comparative  Test  of  Machines  and  Methods  for  the  Determination 
of  Fat  in  Milk.  (Short,  Beimling,  Patrick,  Babcock,  Gravimetric.) 
Mississippi  Bull.  No.  15,  pp.  5-16. 

A  Description  of  Cochran's  Method  for  the  Determination  of  Fat 
in  Milk,  for  the  Use  of  Dairymen.  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  17. 

Iowa  Station  Milk  Test.  (Patrick.)  Iowa  Bull.  No.  8,  pp.  295- 
316;  No.  9,  p.  355;  No.  11,  pp.  484-487. 

A  New  Method  for  Determining  the  Amount  of  Butter  Fat  in 
Milk.  Mississippi  Bull.  No.  21,  pp.  17-19. 

A  New  Milk  Test.    (Beimling.)    Vermont  Bull.  No.  21. 

The  Lactanalyt,  A  New  Milk  Tester.  Vermont  Report  for  1894, 
pp.  161-162. 

A  New  Method  of  Milk  Analysis  (Short)  for  the  Use  of  Dairy- 
men, and  a  Comparison  of  Its  Results  with  Those  Obtained  by  the 
Churn.  Kansas  Report  for  1888,  pp.  149-164. 

A  Method  for  the  Determination  of  Fat  in  Milk  and  Cream.  (Par- 
sons.) New  York  (State)  Bull.  No.  19.  New  Series. 

Feser's  Lactoscope  and  Fjord's  Centrifugal  Controller,  described 
in  Ontario  Report  for  1885,  pp.  207-208. 

Testing  Milk  at  Creameries.    (Short.)    Vermont  Bull.  No.  16. 

The  Schoch  and  Bolender  Test  Churn.  Wisconsin  Report  for  1884, 
pp.  23-25. 

Description  of  the  Test  Churn.    Ontario  Report  for  1885,  p.  201. 

The  Oil  Test  for  Cream.    Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  12. 

A  New  Method  for  Determining  Fat  in  Milk.  (Short.)  Wisconsin 
Bull.  No.  16  and  Report  for  1888,  pp.  124-136. 

The  Babcock  Milk  Test  was  first  described  in  Wisconsin  Bull. 
No.  24  and  Report  for  1890,  pp.  98-113.  Improvements  and  modifi- 
cations are  discussed  in  Bull.  No.  31,  pp.  3-16;  Bull.  No.  36,  pp.  3-20; 
Bull.  No.  52,  Report  for  1892,  pp.  219-244;  Report  for  1893,  pp.  116- 
121.  Compared  with  the  Gravimetric  Method  in  Report  for  1896, 
pp.  138-143. 

Elsewhere,  the  method  has  been  described  in  Pennsylvania  Bull. 
No.  33;  Washington  Bull.  No.  18;  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  29, 
pp.  77-80;  Colorado  Bull.  No.  20,  pp.  3-10;  North  Carolina  Bull.  No. 
113,  pp.  101-111;  West  Virginia  Bull.  No.  13,  pp.  52-57;  Ontario  Bull. 
No.  61;  Bull.  No.  93,  pp.  5-6;  Connecticut  Bull.  No.  106,  pp.  2-9; 
Bull.  No.  108,  pp.  5-11;  Bull.  No.  117,  Report  for  1894,  pp.  209-244; 
Maine  Bull.  No.  3,  Second  Series;  Bull.  No.  4,  Report  for  1891,  Part 
II.,  pp.  71-80;  Michigan  Bull.  No.  127;  Illinois  Bull.  No.  27;  North 
Dakota  Bull.  No.  22;  Pennsylvania  Report  for  1895,  Part  II.,  pp. 


References  407 

90-100;  Nevada  Bull.  No.  16,  pp.  41-51;  Mississippi  Bull.  No.  15, 
pp.  7-14. 

Milk  Sampling.    Delaware  Bull.  No.  31. 

Composite  Milk  Samples  Tested  for  Butter  Fat.  Illinois  Bull. 
No.  16,  pp.  504-515.  Continued  in  Bull.  No.  18,  pp.  27-28. 

The  Composite  Sample.  Preservatives  for  Keeping  Milk — Samples 
for  Testing.  Iowa  Bull.  No.  11,  pp.  482-484. 

Composite  Samples  at  the  Creamery — Chromate  Preservatives. 
Iowa  Bull.  No.  22,  pp.  836-844. 

Detection  of  Adulterations  in  Milk.  Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  31,  pp. 
17-27;  Bull.  No.  36,  pp.  21-31,  and  Report  for  1892,  pp.  245-257. 
Ontario  Bull.  No.  93,  pp.  3-5;  Vermont  Newspaper  Bull.  No.  4. 

Lactometer  and  Milk  Test  for  Examining  Milk.  Minnesota  Bull. 
No.  27,  pp.  55-56. 

The  Relation  between  Specific  Gravity  and  Solids  of  Milk.  Wis- 
consin Report  for  1895,  pp.  120-126. 

The  Estimation  of  the  Total  Solids  in  Milk  from  the  Per  Cent 
of  Fat,  and  the  Specific  Gravity  of  the  Milk.  Wisconsin  Report  for 
1891,  pp.  292-307,  and  Report  for  1893,  p.  142. 

The  Lactometer  and  Fat  Test  for  Cheese  and '  Condensed  Milk 
Factories.  Maine  Bull.  No.  4,  New  Series,  pp.  6-10. 

CHAPTER  V 

Dairy  Bacteriology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 
Bull.  No.  25. 

The  Fermentations  of  Milk.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Expt.  Stations. 
Bull.  No.  9. 

Souring  of  Milk.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  29. 

Milk  Fermentations  and  Their  Relations  to  Dairying.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  9. 

The  Isolation  of  Rennet  from  Bacteria  Cultures.  Connecticut 
(Storrs)  Report  for  1892,  pp.  106-126. 

The  Sources  of  Bacterial  Infection,  and  the  Relation  of  the  Same 
to  the  Keeping  Quality  of  Milk.  Wisconsin  Report  for  1894,  pp.  150-165. 

Cleanliness  in  Handling  Milk;  Bacteriological  Considerations. 
North  Dakota  Bull.  No.  21. 

A  Microccus  of  Bitter  Milk.  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Report  for 
1891,  pp.  158-162. 

Pasteurization  of  Milk  and  Cream  for  Direct  Consumption.  Wis- 
consin Bull.  No.  44. 


408  Milk   and   Its   Products 

Ropiness  in  Milk  and  Cream.   Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  165. 
Bacteriology  of  Cheese.    Wisconsin  Report  for  1.903,  pp.  226-230. 
Action  of  Acid  Producing  Bacteria  on  Casein.    Wisconsin  Rept.  for 

1904,  pp.  169-171. 

Notes  on  Pasteurization  of  Milk  and  Cream.  Wisconsin  Rept. 
for  1895,  pp.  158-173. 

On  the  Restoration  of  the  Consistency  of  Pasteurized  Milk  and 
Cream.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1896,  pp.  81-94,  and  Bull.  No.  54. 

A  Preliminary  Bulletin  on  Pasteurization  of  Milk.  Michigan  Bull. 
No.  134. 

Preservation  of  Cream  for  Market.  Maine  Bull.  No.  23,  New 
Series. 

CHAPTER  VII 

Aeration  and  Aerators.  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  39,  pp. 
90-94. 

Aeration  of  Milk.    Vermont  Rept.  for  1892,  pp.  123-128. 

Concerning  the  Aeration  of  Milk.    Indiana  Bull.  No.  44,  pp.  37-39. 

Town  and  City  Milk  Supply.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bull. 
No.  42,  pp.  23-28*. 

Variations  in  Fat  of  Milk  Served  to  Customers  in  Dipping  from 
Cans.  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  20,  pp.  68-71. 

Variations  in  the  Fat  of  Milk.    Ontario  Bull.  No.  46. 

Relative  Absorption  of  Odors  in  Warm  and  Cold  Milk.  Wisconsin 
Rept.  for  1898,  pp.  104-109. 

The  Efficiency  of  a  Continuous  Pasteurizer.  New  York  (State) 
Bull.  No.  172. 

The  Detection  of  Taints  in  Pasteurized  Milk.    Wisconsin  Rept.  for 

1905,  pp.  222-226. 

Standardization  of  Milk  and  Cream.    Illinois  Bull.  Nos.  74  and  75. 

CHAPTER  IX 

Cream  Raising  by  Dilution.  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  20, 
pp.  61-67;  Bull.  No.  29,  pp.  65-71;  Bull.  No.  39,  pp.  77-85;  Illinois 
Bull.  No.  12,  pp.  376-377;  Bull.  No.  18,  pp.  30-32;  Vermont  Rept.  for 
1890,  pp.  100-107.;  Vermont  Rept.  for  1898,  pp.  365-366. 

Other  Methods  of  Setting  Milk.  Minnesota  Bull.  No.  19,  pp.  11- 
19;  Iowa  Bull.  No.  25,  pp.  39-40;  Indiana  Bull.  No.  44,  pp.  23-37;  Wis- 
consin Rept.  for  1884,  pp.  17-22;  Rept.  for  1893,  pp.  147-150;  Bull. 
No.  7,  pp.  9-13;  Bull.  No.  29;  Canada,  Central  Experimental  Farm 


References  409 

Kept,  for  1891,  pp.  89-104;  Kept,  for  1892,  pp.  71-74;  Ontario  Kept, 
for  1894,  pp.  142-144;  Vermont  Kept,  for  1891,  pp.  100-101;  Maine 
Bull.  No.  5,  Second  Series;  Utah  Bull.  No.  42. 

The  Viscosity  of  Milk.   New  York  (State)  Kept,  for  1886,  pp.  323-330. 

The  Constitution  of  Milk  and  Some  of  the  Conditions  Which  Affect 
the  Separation  of  Cream.  Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  18. 

The  Centrifugal  Separation  of  Casein  and  Insoluble  Phosphates  from 
Milk.  Wisconsin  Kept,  for  1895,  pp.  93-99. 

Tests  of  Cream  Separators.  Delaware  Bull.  No.  17,  and  Rept.  for 
1892,  pp.  110-122;  Iowa  Bull.  No.  25,  pp.  32-38;  New  Hampshire  Rept. 
for  1893,  pp.  36-45,  and  Bull.  No.  70;  New  York  (Cornell),  Bull.  No.  66 
and  105;  North  Carolina  Bull.  No.  114;  Pennsylvania  Rept.  for  1892, 
Part  II.,  pp.  51-79,  and  Bull.  No.  20;  Bull.  No.  27;  Rept.  for  1894, 
pp.  13-35;  South  Dakota  Bull.  No.  39;  Vermont  Bull.  No.  27  and 
Rept.  for  1892,  pp.  136-143;  Rept.  for  1893,  pp.  92-100;  Rept.  for 

1894,  pp.  151-160;  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1895,  pp.  151-157,  and  Bull. 
No.  46. 

CHAPTERS  X,  XI,  XII 

Experiments  with  Boyd's  Vat  and  Starter.  Ontario  Rept.  for  1891, 
pp.  178-179. 

Bacteria  in  the  Dairy.  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Rept.  for  1895,  pp. 
14-41. 

The  Use  of  Bacterial  Culture  Starters  in  Butter  Making,  with 
Especial  Reference  to  the  Conn  Culture  (B.  41).  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 

1895,  pp.  174-231;  published,  in  part,  in  Bull.  No.  48. 

An  Acid  Test  of  Cream.  Illinois  Bull.  No.  32,  and  Bull.  No.  33, 
pp.  399-400. 

The  Alkaline  Tablet  Test  of  Acidity  in  Milk  or  Cream.  Wisconsin 
Bull.  No.  52,  pp.  8-16. 

Sweet  versus  Sour  Cream  Butter.  Iowa  Bull.  No.  8,  pp.  317-320; 
Bull.  No.  11,  pp.  481-482;  Bull.  No.  18,  pp.  478-487;  Bull.  No.  21,  pp. 
788-791;  Illinois  Bull.  No.  9,  pp.  301-302;  Texas  Bull.  No.  11,  pp. 
15-16;  Ontario  Rept.  for  1891,  pp.  179-181;  West  Virginia  Rept.  for 
1890,  pp.  48-66. 

Creamery  Studies  of  Methods  and  Machinery.  A  Comparison 
of  the  Sour  Cream,  Sweet  Cream  and  Butter  Extractor  Processes. 
Delaware  Rept.  for  1890,  pp.  17-23,  and  pp.  129-149;  also  Bull. 
No.  9. 

Our  Experience  with  Extractor  Butter.  Ontario  Rept.  for  1893, 
pp.  170-171. 


410  Milk   and   Its   Products 

A  Study  in  Churning.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  22,  pp.  819-832. 

Churning  Experiments.    Vermont  Kept,  for  1893,  pp.  100-106. 

Butter  Tests.  New  York  (State)  Kept,  for  1884,  pp.  334-347,  and 
Kept,  for  1885,  pp.  275-292. 

The  Effect  of  Succulent  Food  upon  the  Churnability  of  the  Fat  in 
Milk.  Vermont  Kept,  for  1890,  pp.  70-74. 

Butter  Making.  Ontario  Kept,  for  1889,  pp.  161-163;  Bull.  No. 
48. 

Canada  Central  Experimental  Farm  Dairy.    Bull.  No.  3. 

Washing  and  Salting  Butter.    Minnesota  Bull.  No.  7,  pp.  34-^2. 

Influence  of  Conditions  in  Churning  on  Water  in  Butter.  Iowa 
Bull.  No.  52. 

Estimating  Water  in  Butter  by  Overrun  in  Churning.  Wisconsin 
Kept,  for  1905,  pp.  186-189. 

The  Relation  of  Acid  Fermentation  to  Butter  Flavor  and  Aroma. 
Iowa  Bull.  No.  40. 

Commercial  Butter  Cultures.    Pennsylvania  Bull.  No.  44. 

Heated  Milk  for  Butter  Making.    Pennsylvania  Bull.  No.  45. 

Ripening  Cream.    Connecticut  (Storrs)  Bull.  No.  21. 

Pasteurization  of  Milk  for  Butter  Making.    Ontario  Bull.  No.  117. 

Pasteurization  as  Applied  to  Butter  Making.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 
1903,  pp.  167-176. 

Perpetuation  of  Pure  Cultures  for  Butter  Starters.  Oregon  Bull. 
No.  83. 

Use  of  Starters  in  Butter  Making.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  103. 

Influence  of  Acidity  of  Cream  in  Flavor  of  Butter.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Bureau  Animal  Industry,  Bull.  No.  114. 

The  Cause  of  Mottled  Butter.    Maryland  Bull.  No.  64. 

Effect  of  Salt  on  Water  in  Butter.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1899,  pp. 
97-107. 

White  Spots  in  Butter.    Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1899,  pp.  118-120. 

Effect  of  Feed  on  Quality  of  Butter.  Vermont  Rept.  for  1901,  pp. 
375-377. 

Water  in  Butter.    Ontario  Rept.  for  1902,  pp.  38-39. 

Keeping  Quality  of  Butter.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  71. 

Moisture  Content  of  Butter.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  76. 

Keeping  Quality  of  Butter.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, Bull.  No.  57. 

Relation  of  Proteids  to  Mottled  Butter.  New  York  (State)  Bull. 
No.  263. 

Butter  Preservatives.    Ontario  Bull.  No.  145. 


References  411 

Manufacture  and  Storage  of  Butter.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Animal 
Industry,  Bull.  Nos.  84  and  89. 

Comparison  of  Aniline  and  Annatto  Butter  Colors.  Wisconsin  Bull. 
No.  152. 

A  Study  of  Moisture  in  Butter.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  101. 

Paraffining  Butter  Tubs.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Animal  Industry, 
Bull.  No.  130. 

Factors  Influencing  the  Composition  of  Butter.  Illinois  Bulls.  Nos. 
137,  138  and  139. 

Keeping  Quality  of  Butter.    Michigan  Tech.  Bulls.  Nos.  1  and  2. 

CHAPTERS  XIII,  XIV 

For  references  to  aeration,  see  Chapter  VII. 

Points  of  Attention  for  the  Patrons  of  Cheese  Factories  and  Cream- 
eries. Ontario  Bull.  No.  2. 

Milk  for  Cheese  Making.  Ontario  Bull.  No.  49;  Bull.  No.  28;  Bull. 
No.  94;  Canada  Central  Experimental  Farm  Dairy.  Bull.  No.  1. 

Pure  Lactic  Culture  of  Bacteria  in  Cheese  Making.  Wisconsin  Rept. 
for  1896,  pp.  112-126. 

Rennet  Extracts  of  Commerce.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  22,  pp.  845-851. 

Losses  in  Cheese  Making.    Vermont  Rept.  for  1891,  pp.  95-100. 

The  Effect  of  Salt  upon  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1894,  pp. 
220-222. 

The  Effect  of  Aeration  on  the  Flavor  of  Tainted  Curds  in  Cheese 
Making.  The  Influence  of  Acid  on  the  Texture  of  Cheese.  The  Hot 
Iron  Test.  Experiments  in  Ripening  the  Milk  before  Setting.  Wis- 
consin Rept.  for  1895,  pp.  127-138. 

Experiments  in  the  Manufacture  of  Cheese.  New  York  (State) 
Repts.  for  1891,  p.  216;  1892,  p.  295;  1893,  p.  239;  1894,  p.  263. 

Hints  to  Cheese  Makers.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  19,  pp.  627-631. 

Investigations  in  Cheese  Making.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  21,  pp.  735-767. 

Experiments  in  Cheese  Making.    Minnesota  Bull.  No.  19,  pp.  20-25. 

Experiments  in  the  Manufacture  of  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 
1894,  pp.  131-149. 

The  Relation  between  Milk  Solids  and  the  Yield  of  Cheese.  Wis- 
consin Rept.  for  1895,  pp.  100-119. 

Notes  for  Cheese  Makers  for  May.  Ontario  Bull.  No.  40;  for  July, 
Bull.  No.  43;  for  August,  Bull.  No.  44;  for  October,  Bull.  No.  47.  Rept. 
for  1889,  pp.  163-179. 

Notes  for  Cheese  Makers  for  May.    Canada  Central  Experimental 


412  Milk   and  Its   Products 

Farm,  Dairy  Bull.  No.  2;  Special  Dairy  Bulletins  for  July,  August, 
October  and  June. 

Articles  on  Spring,  Summer  and  Fall  Cheese  in  Ontario  Kept,  for 
1893,  pp.  167-170. 

Gas-producing  Bacteria,  and  the  Relation  of  the  Same  to  Cheese. 
Wisconsin  Kept,  for  1895. 

The  Rise  and  Fall  of  Bacteria  in  Cheddar  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Rept. 
for  1896,  pp.  95-111. 

An  Aromatic  Bacillus  of  Cheese:    Iowa  Bull.  No.  21,  pp.  792-796. 

Changes  During  Cheese  Ripening.    Iowa  Bull.  No.  24,  pp.  969-984. 

Rusty  Cans  and  Effect  on  Milk  for  Cheese  Making.  Wisconsin  Bull. 
No.  162. 

Propagation  of  Pure  Starters  in  Cheese  Making.  Wisconsin  Bull. 
No.  181. 

Moisture  Supply  in  Cheese  Curing  Rooms.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 
1896,  pp.  156-163. 

Experiments  upon  the  Curing  of  Cheese.  Cornell  University  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Rept.  for  1880,  pp.  9-27. 

Effect  of  Rennet  Extract  in  Curdling  Milk.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 
1898,  pp.  31-34. 

The  Action  of  Rennet  in  Watered  Milk.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1898, 
pp.  35-36. 

The  Effect  of  Salt  on  Rennet  Action.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1898,  pp. 
37-41. 

Action  of  Ferments  in  Ripening  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1899, 
pp.  57-174. 

Effect  of  Digesting  Bacteria  on  Cheese  Solids.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 
1899. 

Coating  Cheese  with  Paraffin.    Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1899,  pp.  153-154. 

Influence  of  Cold  Curing  on  Quality  of  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for 
1901,  pp.  136-161. 

A  Study  of  Enzymes  in  Cheese.    New  York  (State)  Bull.  No.  203. 

Conditions  Affecting  Weight  Lost  in  Cheese  Curing.  New  York 
(State)  Bull.  No.  207. 

Salts  Formed  by  Casein  'and  Paracasein  in  Cheddar  Cheese  Making. 
New  York  (State)  Bull.  No.  214-219. 

Ripening  Cheese  in  Cold  Storage.    Ontario  Bull.  No.  121. 

Influence  of  Temperature  of  60°  on  Flavor  in  Cold  Cured  Cheese. 
Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1902,  pp.  165-183. 

Cold  Curing  of  Cheese.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Animal  Industry, 
Bull.  No.  49. 


References  413 

Ripening  Cheese.  New  York  (State)  Bulls.  Nos.  233,  234,  236  and 
237. 

Shrinkage  of  Cold  Cured  Cheese.    Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  101. 

Experimental  Work  in  Cheese  Making.  Wisconsin  Kept,  for  1903, 
pp.  188-192. 

Investigations  in  Curing  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Kept,  for  1903,  pp. 
193-219. 

Canning  Cheese.    Oregon  Bull.  No.  78. 

Relations  of  Bacteria  to  Flavor  of  Cheddar  Cheese.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Bureau  Animal  Industry,  Bull  No.  62;  Wisconsin  Report  for  1904. 

Relation  of  Casein  and  Paracasein  to  Cheddar  Cheese.  New  York 
(State)  Bull.  No.  261. 

Cold  Storage  of  Cheese.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Animal  Industry, 
Bull.  No.  83. 

Influence  of  Metals  on  Action  of  Rennet.  Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1907, 
pp.  134-159. 

An  Automatic  Cheese  Press.    Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1907. 

Defects  in  Cheddar  Cheese.    New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  257. 

The  First  Chemical  Changes  in  Cheddar  Cheese.  New  York  (State) 
Tech.  Bull.  No.  4. 

The  Bacterial  Flora  of  Cheddar  Cheese.  New  York  (State)  Tech. 
Bull.  No.  8. 

CHAPTER  XV 

The  Manufacture  of  Sweet  Curd  Cheese  (Edam  and  Gouda).  Min- 
nesota Rept.  for  1894,  pp.  104-128,  and  Bull.  No.  35. 

Experiment  Relating  to  the  Manufacture  of  Edam  and  Gouda  Cheese. 
New  York  (State)  Rept.  for  1893,  pp.  244-269,  and  Bull.  No.  56. 

Albumin  Cheese.     Wisconsin  Rept.  for  1895,  pp.  134-136. 

Chemical  Changes  in  Souring  Milk  in  Relation  to  Cottage  Cheese. 
New  York  (State)  Bull.  No.  245. 

Soft  Cheese  Studies  in  Europe.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rept.  for  1905,  pp. 
75-109. 

Varieties  of  Cheese.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Animal  Industry, 
Bull.  No.  105. 

Care  and  Testing  of  Camembert  Cheese.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau 
Animal  Industry,  Rept.  for  1907,  pp.  339-343. 

Camembert  Cheese  Problems  in  United  States.  Connecticut 
(Storrs)  Bull.  No.  58. 

Fancy  Cheese  for  Farm  and  Factory.  New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No. 
270. 


414  Milk   and   Its   Products 

CHAPTER  XVI 

The  Manufacture  of  Ice  Cream.  Iowa  Bull.  No.  123;  Vermont  Bull. 
No.  155. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Manufacture  of  Milk  Sugar  (Report  of  Chemist).  Delaware 
Report  for  1891,  pp.  104-108. 

The  Hog  as  an  Adjunct  to  the  Dairy.  Ontario  Rept.  for  1889,  pp. 
184-189. 

Whey  Butter.    New  York  (Cornell)  Bull.  No.  85. 

Sweet  Skim  Milk;  Its  Value  as  Food  for  Pigs  and  Calves.  Wis- 
consin Bull.  No.  1. 

The  Feeding  Value  of  Whey.  Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  27;  Report 
for  1891,  pp.  38-48. 

Feeding  Waste  Products  of  the  Dairy.  Wisconsin  Report  for  1886, 
pp.  21-25. 

The  Value  of  Creamery  Separator  Skim  Milk  for  Swine  Feeding. 
Wisconsin  Report  for  1895,  pp.  7-23. 

Whey  Butter  of  Swiss  Cheese.    Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  132. 

Pasteurization  and  Inspection  of  Creamery  By-products.  Wisconsin 
Bull.  No.  148. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Building  Creameries  and  Organization  of  Cooperative  Creamery 
Companies.  South  Dakota  Bull.  No.  46. 

Creameries  for  Texas;  Plans  and  Specifications  in  Full  for  Creamery 
Outfit.  Texas  Bull.  No.  5. 

Cooperative  Creameries.  Minnesota  Report  for  1894,  pp.  93-103, 
and  Bull.  No.  35. 

The  Establishment  of  Cheese  Factories  and  Creameries.  Special 
Bull,  of  the  Central  Canada  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa. 

By-Laws,  Rules  and  Regulations  for  Cheese  Factories.  Canada 
Central  Experimental  Farm  Dairy  Bull.  No.  9. 

Construction  of  Cheese  Curing  Rooms.    Wisconsin  Bull.  No.  70. 

Improvement  of  Cheese  Curing  Rooms.  Ontario  Dairy  Div.  Bull. 
No.  1. 

Plans  for  a  Cool  Cheese  Curing  Room.  Ontario  Dairy  Div.  Bull. 
No.  7. 

By-Laws,  Rules  and  Regulations  for  Creameries  on  the  Cream- 
Gathering  Plan.  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Dairy  Bull.  No.  10. 


References  415 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Statistics  of  the  Dahy.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry. Bull.  No.  11. 

Returns  from  the  Ninth,  Tenth,  and  Eleventh  Censuses,  Relating 
to  the  Production  of  Milk,  Butter  and  Cheese  on  the  Farm.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,  Report  of  the  Statistician,  No.  113,  pp.  115-118. 

GENERAL 

Facts  About  Milk.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  42. 

The  Dairy  Industry  in  Denmark.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Bull.  No.  5. 

The  Creamery  Industry.    Nevada  Bull.  No.  16. 

Dairying.    South  Carolina  Bull.  No.  19. 

Dairying  in  California.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, Bull.  No.  14. 

Dairy  Farming  in  Washington.    Washington  Bull.  No.  2,  pp.  23-27, 

The  Dairy  Industry  in  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  and  North  Dakota. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bull.  No.  16. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abnormal  fermentations 113 

Accumulator 191 

Accuracy  of  Babcock  test  glassware .   99 
Acid,  boracic 121 

—  butyric 20,  23 

—  capric 23 

—  caproic 23 

—  caprylic 23 

—  citric 26 

—  dioxystearic 23 

—  formation  of  lactic 198 

—  hydrochloric  in  ripening  cream.  .  197 

—  lactic 25,  116,  196,  208,  241 

—  lactic,  determination  of . .  .  .205,  351 

—  lauric 23 

—  myristic 22 

—  oleic 22 

—  palmitic 22 

—  salicylic 121 

—  stearic 22 

—  sulphuric 104 

—  tests 204 

Acini 3 

Act,  Filled  Cheese 345,  382 

—  oleomargarine 344,  369 

Adams  paper-coil  method 78 

Adjustable,  separator 191 

Advanced  registry  of  cows 45 

Aeration  of  milk 138,  242 

Aerators 139 

Aerometer,  Soxhlet's 87 

Agar 127,  128,  131 

—  lactose 129 

Agricultural     Experiment     Station 

Bulletins 404 

Air  drainage 327 

Air  space  necessary  in  stables 153 

Albumin 23,  24 

Albuminoid  fermentations 117 

Albuminoids 23 

Alcoholic  fermentation 25 

Alderney  cattle 66 


PAGE 
Alexandra  Jumbo  separator.  .  .191,  192 

Aliquot  milk  samples,  Scovell 103 

Alkali,  clecinormal 204,  351 


10 


204,  351 

-*"...          . .  136 


—  use  of  in  cleaning 

Alkaline  tablets,  Farrington's. .... 

124,  205,  351 
Alpha  B  separator 191 

—  Baby  separator 191 

—  discs 187 

— •  No.  1  separator 192 

—  separator 187 

Alveoli 3 

American  cheddar  process 249 

—  home-trade  cheese 270 

—  Neufchatel  cheese 273 

Amphoteric  reaction 108 

Analysis,  gravimetric 77 

Analyses  of  milk 17 

Angularity,  relation  of  to  capacity .  .   42 

Angus,  J.  J.,  mentioned 323 

Aniline  butter  color 231 

Animal,  effect  of,  on  milk  secretion.    14 

—  excrement,  relation  of  bacteria 

to...  ..119 


—  odor. 


Annatto 

Antiseptics 

Apparatus  bacteriological . . 

—  Fjord's  control 

—  pasteurizing 

Arnold,  L.  B.,  quoted 

Arnold's  separator 

Aromatics  and  stimulants. . 
Artificial  butter 

—  starter,  preparation  of .  . 
Asbestos  method,  Babcock. 


milk 

Associated  dairying 

Associations,  cow-testing . . 


138 

231 

120 

126 

88 

123 

170 

191 

50 

344 

354 

78 

25 

...  16,  36 

340 

..  47 


AA 


(417) 


418 


Index 


PAGE 

Aufaits 301 

Autoclave 134 

Avoiding  flavors  due  to  food 21 

Ayrshire  cattle 69 

—  milk 33 

B.  41 199 

Babcock  asbestos  method 78 

—  centrifugal 94 

—  formula  for  total  solids 350 

—  glassware,  calibration  of 359 

Babcock,  S.  M.,  mentioned 89,  91 

— ,  S.  M.,  quoted 

14,  17,  147,  170,  171,  236 

—  test 91 

acid  for 104 

black  specks  in 105 

bottle 95 

calibration  of  glassware 99 

details  of 94 

for  butter 99,  359 

for  cheese 99,  359 

for  cream 97 

for  skim  milk 98 

glassware 95 

accuracy  of 99 

cleaning 107 

reading  the  fat ,  .106 

sampling  milk. 101 

temperature   of   reading    fat 

95,  106 

Baby  separator 191 

-De  Laval 193 

Bacillus 109 

—  acidi-lactici 115 

—  No.  41 199 

—  prodigiosus 113 

—  tubercle 122 

Bacteria 109 

—  determination  of  in  milk 125 

—  presence  of  in  milk Ill 

—  relation  of  to  animal  excrement.  119 

dust  to 119 

to  hay  and  dried  forage 119 

Bacteriological  apparatus 126 

—  laboratory 126 

—  media 127 

Bad  flavors  in  milk 143 

Balanced  ration 51 

B.  and  W.  test  bottle 96 

Barber,  quoted 200 

Batch  freezers 307 

Beimling,  H.  F.,  mentioned 92 


PAGE 

Beimling  test 92 

Belted  cattle,  Dutch 74 

Bernstein,  Alexander,  mentioned. .  .324 

Bichromate  of  potash 102 

Biscuit  ice  cream 300 

Bisque  ice  cream 301 

Bitter  milk 113,  143 

Bixa  orellana 231 

Black  specks  in  Babcock  test 105 

Blended  milk,  Federal  standard  for .  365 
Blood,  relation  of  to  milk  secretion . .    11 

"Bloody  bread" , ..  .113 

Board  of.  Health  lactometer 80,  349 

Boracic  acid 121 

Borden,  Gail,  Jr.,  mentioned  .  . 316 

Bottle,  Babock  test 95 

Bottling  milk 142,  162 

Bouillon 131 

—  nutrient 127 

Bowls,  separator 179 

Brands  for  cheese,  State 345 

"Breaking"  of  butter 216 

Breed,  relation  of  to  milk  produc- 
tion     52 

—  selection  of 52 

—  dairy 63 


Brie  cheese 295 

Brine  freezers 307 

—  salting  butter 227 

Browne,  quoted 22 

Brown  separator,  medium 191 

Brown  Swiss  cattle 73 

Buildings,  dairy 326 

Bulletins,  references  to 404 

Bull,  management  of 57 

—  selection  of 55 

Burette : 206 

Butter  accumulator 191 

—  and  cheese  factories  combined... 335 

—  artificial 344 

—  Babcock  test  for 359 

—  "breaking"  of '. 216 

—  brine  salting 227 

—  color  of 231 

—  colors 231 

—  color,  aniline 231 

—  composition  of ...  T 229 

—  "factory" 346 

—  factories 326 

arrangement  of 327 

construction  of 330 

—  fat,  Federal  standard  for 366 

—  Federal  standard  for 366 


Index 


419 


PAGE 

Butter  finish 232 

—  flavor  of -. 230 

—  granules,  size  of 221 

—  imitation  creamery 346 

—  marketing 227 

—  moisture-test,  Cornell 359 

—  mottled  and  streaked 226 

—  packages 228 

—  packing 227 

—  prints 229 

—  "process" 346 

—  quality  of 229 

—  rancid 20 

—  relation  of  lactic  acid  to  keeping 

quality 207 

—  relation  of  wash  water  to  flavor .  223 

—  relation     of     wash     water     to 

texture. 222 

—  renovated 346 

—  salting 224 

—  score  card  for 232 

—  "standing  up"  quality 196 

—  sweet  cream 207 

—  testing  by  Babcock  method 99 

—  texture  of 222,  230 

—  washing 220 

—  white  specks  in 208 

—  workers 223 

—  working 223 

Buttermilk 315 

—  characteristic  appearance  of .  .  .  .217 

—  Federal  standard  for 366 

—  separation  of  from  butter 219 

Butyric  acid 20,  23 

—  fermentations 113,  118 

Butyrin 20 

Butyrometer 93 

By-products  of  dairy 315 

Caked  udder 38 

Calcium  chloride 248 

—  oxalate 248 

Calibration  of  Babcock  glassware. .'..359 

—  of  glassware  in  Babcock  test. ...    99 

Camembert  cheese 295 

Canadian  cattle,  French 75 

—  Club  cheese 279 

Capacity  of  cows 41 

—  relation  of  external  form  to 43 

Capric  acid 23 

Caprilin 20 

Caprin 20 

Caproic  acid 23 


PAGE 

Caproin 20 

Caprylic  acid 23 

Caramel  ice  cream 310 

Ca.re  of  cows 155 

milk  utensils 160 

stable 156 

Careno,  quoted 26 

Casein 23,  233 

—  coagulation  of 234 

—  dried 320 

—  formation  of 7 

Cattle,  Alderney 66 

—  Ayrshire 69 

—  Brown  Swiss 73 

—  Devon 74 

—  Dutch . .,. 67 

—  Dutch  Belted *\ 74 

—  feeding  dairy 47 

—  French  Canadian 75 

—  Guernsey 65 

—  Holstein 66 

Friesian 66 

—  Jersey 64 

—  Kerry 75 

—  Lakenvelder '.    74 

—  Normandy 75 

—  Red  Polled 73 

—  Shorthorn 71 

—  Simmenthal 75 

Caustic  potash 102 

—  soda 102 

Cells,  secreting 3 

Cement  floors. 330 

Centigrade  thermometer 349 

Centrifugal,  Babcock 94 

—  butter-worker 225 

—  creaming 177 

—  force,      relation      to      complete 

creaming 181 

—  separation 177 

theory  of 179 

—  separator,  efficiency  of 190 

theory  of 180 

—  system 164 

Certified  milk 149 

standards 151 

Cheddar  cheese 249 

-  English 280 

making 251 

Cheddaring 257 

—  process 249 

Cheese 233 

—  Act,  Filled 345,  382 


420 


Index 


PAGE 

Cheese  aeration  of  milk 242 

—  American  home-trade 270 

—  and  butter  factories  combined. ..335 

—  Babcock  test  for 359 

—  bandage 263 

—  Brie 295 

—  Camembert 295 

—  Canadian  Club 279 

—  Cheddar 249 

—  Cheshire 280,  286 

—  Club  House 279 

—  color  of 268 

—  composition 267 

—  cottage , 322 

—  cream 270 

—  curing '. 264 

—  curing  in  cold  storage 265 

—  curing-rooms,  construction  of. .  .334 

—  Derbyshire 280,  288 

—  D'Isigny 297 

—  dividends  on  the  fat  basis 239 

—  double  Gloucester 280 

—  dressing 263 

—  Dutch 322 

—  Edam 290 

—  Emmenthaler 289 

—  English 280 

—  English  Cheddar 280 

—  estimation  of  fat  in  by  Babcock 

test 99 

—  factories 326 

—  factories,  construction  of 332 

—  factory  system 341 

—  fancy 270 

—  Federal  standard  for 367 

—  filled 345 

—  filled  law 382 

—  flavor  of 268 

- —  "flinty  break" 268 

—  food 323 

—  formation  of  rind 263 

—  Gloucester,  single  and  double. .  .  280 

—  Gouda 294 

—  Gorgonzola 289 

—  Gruyere 289 

—  hard 269 

—  Imitation  Swiss 279 

-  Lancashire 280,  288 

-  Law,  filled 382 

—  leaky V 271 

—  Leicestershire. .! 280,  288 

—  Limburger 277 

—  making 233 


PAGE 
Cheese  making,  Cheddar 251 

—  cheddaring  or  matting 257 

Cheddar  process 249 

cooking  the  curd 255 

cooling  milk 241 

—  curing 263 

cutting  curd 253 

—  "gassy"  curds 266 

grinding  curd 259 

—  heating 255 

—  loss  of  fat  in 240 

—  overripe  milk 266 

—  pressing > 261 

quality  of  milk  for 234 

removal  of  whey 249 

—  rich  and  poor  milk  in 238 

—  ripening  milk  for 242 

salting  the  curd 260 

setting 251 

starters 246 

—  temperature  of  setting 251 

undesirable  fermentations  in .  265 

—  Meadow  Sweet 279 

—  Neufchatel 273 

—  Parmesan 298 

-  Philadelphia  Cream 277 

—  picnic 273 

—  pineapple 273 

—  poisonous 115 

—  Pont  L'Eveque 297 

—  Port  du  Salut. . .  .  .  .298 


—  pot. 


322 

prepared 279 

press 262 

pressing 261 

quality  of 267 

ratio  of  fat  to  casein 235 

relation  of  fat  in  milk  to 236 

rind 268 

ripening 264 

Roquefort 294 

sage 272 

Schweitzer 289 

score  card  for 268 

single  Gloucester 280 

skimmed 269,  345 

sloppy 271 

...  269 


—  soft 


solids  concerned  in  making 233 

square  cream 277 

state  brands  for 345 

Stilton 280 

stirred  curd ...270 


Index 


421 


PAGE 

Cheese,  Swiss 289 

—  testing  by  Babcock  method 99 

—  texture  of 268 

—  truckle 273 

—  varieties  of 269 

-  Wensleydale 280,  289 

—  "wet" 271 

—  whey 322 

—  Wiltshire 280 

—  Young  America 273 

Cheshire  cheese 280,  286 

Chloride  of  potash 25 

—  of  soda 25 

Chocolate  ice  cream 310 

Chromogenic  fermentations 113 

Churn 210 

Churning 210 

—  amount  of  motion  necessary  ....  215 
Churning,  difficult 217 

—  dilution  of  cream 218 

—  effect  of  motion  on 213 

—  effect  of  temperature  on :2ll 

—  evolution  of  gas  in 219 

—  kind  of  agitation  desirable 213 

—  relation  of  fat  globules  to 215 

—  relation  of  ripeness  of  cream  to .  . 

207,  211 

temperature 211 

viscosity  to 210 

-  rise  of  temperature  in 219 

Churn,  oil  test 84 

Churn  tests 83 

Cistern,  milk 5 

Citric  acid 26 

Classification  of  ice  cream 300 

Cleaning  Babcock  test  glassware . .  .  107 

—  dairy  tinware 136 

—  glassware 130 

—  utensils 13 

Cleanliness 135 

Clotted  cream,  Federal  standard  for .  366 

Cloth  strainers 137 

Club-house  cheese 279 

Coagulation  of  albumin 24 

casein 24,  234 

fibrin 24 

Coccus 109 

Cochran,  C.  B.,  mentioned 91 

—  method 91 

Coffee  ice  cream 310 

—  parfait 311 

Cold  storage,  curing  cheese  in 265 

Color  fermentations ...          113 


PAGE 

Color  of  butter 231 

cheese 268 

Colostrum : 9,  18 

—  corpuscles 18 

—  test  for 18 

Columbia  separator 191 

Combined   butter   and   cheese   fac- 
tories  335 

Commercial  ferments 199 

—  milk 36 

Comparison  of  lactometer  scales  . .  .  350 

thermometer  scales 349 

Composite  sampling 102 

Composition  of  butter 229 

cheese 267 

colostrum 18 

cream *t 148 

milk 16 

Concentrated  milk 319 

Concentrates 49 

Concussion  in  churning 213 

Condensed  milk 316 

Federal  standard  for 365 

—  skim  milk,  Federal  standard  for.  366 
Conn  culture 200 

—  H.  W.,  quoted 199 

Connective  tissue 3 

Constituents  of  milk 17 

Construction  of  creameries 330 

Continuous  freezers 307 

—  pressure  cheese  press 262 

Control  apparatus,  Fjord's 88 

—  of  fermentations 118 

—  milk  supply 145 

Cooking  curd 255 

Coolers,  milk 139 

Cooley  system 169 

Cooling  milk 138,  158,  241 

Cooperative  cow  testing 47 

Cornell  butter  moisture  test 359 

Cornevin,  quoted 17 

Corpuscles,  colostrum 18 

Correction  for  lactometer  tempera- 
ture  350 

Corrosive  sublimate 102 

Cottage  cheese 322 

Counting  bacteria 133 

Covered  milk  pails 158 

Cow  as  commercial  milk  producer...  36 

—  effect  of  age  on  composition  of 

milk 31 

breed  on  composition  of 

milk...  ..  33 


422 


Index 


PAGE 

Cows,  advanced  registry 45 

—  care  of 155 

—  contraction  of  milking  habits.  .  .   41 

—  drying  up 38 

—  feeding 47 

standards  for 48 

—  grade 53 

—  holding  up  milk 5 

—  ideal  ration  for 47 

—  individual  capacity  of 41 

—  milk 16 

—  number  in  United  States 339 

—  official  inspection  of 143 

—  pure  bred 53 

—  relation  of  form  to  capacity 43 

—  requirements  for  registration ....  54 

—  score  card  for 44 

—  "scrub" 53 

—  selection  of 154 

—  testing  associations 47 

—  wedge-shaped  form 42 

Cranberry  mousse 311 

Cream 163 

—  cheeses 270 

-  Philadelphia 277 

—  square 277 

—  composition  of 163 

—  consistency  of 147 

—  definition  of '.  .  .  .  .  163 

—  degree  of  ripeness  necessary 204 

—  dilution  in  churning 218 

—  effects  of  ripening 206 

—  estimation  of   fat    by  Babcock 

test 97 

—  Federal  standard  for 366 

—  for  consumption 146 

—  frothing  or  swelling 218 

—  gathering  system 83,  342 

—  gauges 78 

—  glasses 78 

—  homogenized 303 

—  hydrochloric  acid  in  ripening  . .  .  197 

—  ice 299 

—  ices 300 

—  influence  of  oxygen  in  ripening, .  197 

—  over-ripening 208 

—  pasteurized 147 

—  pasteurizing 202 

—  quality  of  for  consumption 148 

ice  cream 303 

—  relation   of   ripeness   to    churn- 

ing  211 

temperature  to  ripening. .  203 


Cream  ripening  of 

lactic  acid  in 


PAGE 
.  .195 
..196 


temperature  of 203 

—  screw 185 

—  separation  of 163 

—  standardization  of 353 

—  standards  for 148 

—  state  standards  for 368 

—  "swelling"  of .  . 218 

—  testing  by  Babcock  method  ....   97 

—  test  bottles 96 

—  use  of  starter  in  ripening 198 

—  visco 148 

Creameries 326 

—  arrangements  of 327 

—  construction  of 330 

—  gathered  cream 342 

—  gravity  system 327 

—  ground  plan 329 

—  location  of 326 

—  pumping  system 328 

—  water  supply  of 331 

Creamery  butter,  imitation.  .  .346,  347 

—  systems 341 

Creaming  by  dilution 173 

—  centrifugal 177 

—  deep  setting 168 

—  effect  of  delayed  setting 171 

dilution  on 173 

—  gravity 164,  165 

—  losses  in  deep  setting 169 

shallow  pan 168 

—  necessity  for 165 

—  relation  of   centrifugal   force   to 

complete 181 

centrifugal  to 182 

fat  globules  to 166 

inflow  to  complete 184 

solids  not  fat  to 166 

viscosity  of  milk  to 167 

—  shallow  pan 167 

—  systems  of 164 

—  theory  of  centrifugal 18C 

—  theory  of  deep  setting  system  .  .  16P 

Creamometers 78 

Culture,  Conn .  .200 

—  starters 201 

Curd,  cooking 255 

—  cutting 253 

—  fast  working 266 

—  floating 265 

—  "gassy" 265 

—  grinding 259 


Index 


423 


PAGE 

Curd  heating 255 

—  in  Babcock  test 105 

—  knives 254 

—  matting  or  cheddaring 257 

—  membrane 255 

—  mills 259 

—  salting 260 

—  sink 257 

—  test,  Wisconsin 357 

Curds,  washing  or  soaking 272 

Curdling,  sweet 113 

Curing  cheese 264 

—  cheese  in  cold  storage 265 

• —  rooms,  construction  of 334 

• subearth  duct 244 

Cutting  curds 253 

Dairy  breeds 63 

—  buildings,  farm 326 

' —  by-products 315 

—  cattle,  feeding 47 

—  factory  system ; 341 

• —  herd,  formation  of 53 

• "grading  up" 58 

• maintenance  of 54 

—  law,  New  York 387 

—  laws 365 

—  legislation 343 

—  markets 346 

1 —  products,  legal  standards  for. .  .  .  365 
• —  references 404 

—  statistics 338 

—  type 42 

Dairying,  associated 340 

Danish  separator,  large  and  small . .  .  191 

—  Weston  separator 191 

Dean,  H.  H.,  quoted 142,  237 

Decinormal  alkali .204,  351 

Deep  setting  creaming 168 

system 164,  168 

—  theory  of 169 

D'Isigny  cheese 297 

De  Laval  Baby  separator 193 

—  Gustav,  mentioned 179 

—  lactocrite 87 

—  separator 185,  187,  191 

—  separator,  Alpha  No.  1 192 

—  standard  separator 193 

Delayed   setting,   effect   on  cream- 
ing  171 

Derbyshire  cheese 280,  288 

Detachable  neck  test  bottle 96 

Determination  of  bacteria  in  milk.  .125 


PAGE 

Determination  of  lactic  acid  .  .  205,  351 
Detection  of  taints  and  fermenta- 
tions  357 

Devon  cattle 74 

—  milk 33 

Dextrose 25 

Diameter  of  fat  globules 23 

Difficult  churning 217 

Dilution  creaming 173 

—  separator 177 

Dioxystearic  acid 23 

Dipping  milk 139 

Discs  alpha   187 

Disease  germs 113,  122 

—  relation  of  pasteurization  to ....  142 
Diseased   herds — official   inspection 

a  prevention f. 142 

Dishes,  petri 134 

Disinfectants,  use  of 156 

Double  Gloucester  cheese 280 

—  neck  test  bottle 96 

Drainage,  air 327 

"Dressing"  cheese 263 

Dried  casein 320 

"Drying  off"  cows 38 

Duct,  sub-earth 334 

Ducts,  milk 2,  15 

Dust  in  stable,  removal  of 156 

—  relation  of  to  bacteria 119 

Dutch  Belted  cattle 74 

—  cattle 67 

...322 


Edam  cheese 290 

Effect  of  delayed  setting  on  cream- 
ing  171 

dilution  on  creaming 173 

Efficiency  of  centrifugal  separator.  .190 

Electricity  as  a  germicide 121 

Electrolysis  of  milk 121 

Emmenthaler  cheese 289 

Emulsion 23,  163 

English  Cheddar  cheese 280 

—  cheeses 280 

Escutcheon 56 

Essential  oils  in  milk 20 

Estimation  of  solids  not  fat.. .  .  107,  350 

—  of  total  solids 107,  350 

Ether-like  flavors 197 

Eureka  butter  worker 223 

Evaporated  cream,  Federal  stand- 
ard  366 

—  milk...  318 


424 


Index 


PAGE 

Evaporated  milk,  Federal  standard 

for 365 

Ewe's  milk 16 

Ewe's  milk  cheese,  Federal  standard 

for 367 

—  Federal  standard  for 366 

Excrement,  animal,  relation  of  bac- 
teria to 119 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins 404 

Extract,  rennet 248 

Factories,  arrangement  of  cheese . .  .  332 

—  butter  and  cheese 326 

—  butter,  arrangement  of 327 

construction  of 330 

—  cheese,  construction  of 332 

—  gathered  cream 342 

Factory  butter 346 

—  system,  development  of 341 

Fahrenheit  thermometer 349 

Failyer,  Professor,  mentioned 89 

—  and  Willard,  mentioned 89 

method... 89 

Fancy  cheese 270 

Farm  dairy  buildings 335 

Farrington's  alkaline  tablets 

124,  305,  351 

—  E.  *H.,  mentioned 204 

—  quoted 123,  199 

Farrow  cows,  milk  from 28 

Fast-working  curds 267 

Fat  basis  in  cheese  dividends 239 

—  estimation  in  cheese  by  Babcock 

test 99 

—  formation  of 8 

—  globules 8 

—  globules,  diameter  of 23 

relation  of  to  churning 215 

—  in  milk,  relation  to  cheese  made. 236 

—  loss  of  in  cheese-making 240 

—  milk  or  butter,  Federal  standard.366 

—  temperature  of  reading  in  Bab- 

cock  test 95,  106 

Fats 20 

—  effect  of  feed  on 30 

—  period  of  lactation  on. ...   27 

—  formation  of 8 

—  gravimetric  determination  of  ...   77 

—  non-volatile 22 

—  volatile 197 

Fatty  tissue 3 

Febrile  condition,  effect  on  milk 29 

Federal  standards ...  365 


PAGE 

Feeding  dairy  cattle 47 

—  standards  for  cows 48 

Ferment,  preparation  of  artificial..  .354 

Fermentation,  abnormal 113 

Fermentations,  albuminoid 117 

—  alcoholic 25 

—  butyric 113,  118 

—  chromogenic 113 

—  control  of 118 

—  detection  of 357 

—  gaseous 117 

—"gassy" 265 

—  germs  of 109 

—  lactic 113,  115,  266 

—  of  milk 108 

—  normal 113 

—  peptogenic 113,  117 

—  poisonous 115 

—  putrefactive 113,  117 

Ferments,    undersirable    in   cheese 

making 265 

—  commercial 199 

—  Hansen's  lactic 199 

—  preparation  of  ripening 354 

'  —  soluble 234 

Feser's  lactoscope 86 

Fibrini 23,  171 

Filled  cheese 345 

law 345,  382 

Fillers  for  ice  cream 305 

Finish  of  butter 232 

First  milk 30 

Fission 109 

Fjord's  control  apparatus 88 

—  Professor,  mentioned 88 

Flavors  due  to  food 21 

—  of  butter 230 

relation  of  wash  water  to. 223 

cheese 268 

—  bad  in  milk 143 

—  ether-like 197 

—  for  ice  cream 304 

—  producing  germs 197 

Fleischmann,  quoted 17 

Fleshy  udder 3 

"Flinty  break"  of  cheese 268 

Floating  curds 265 

Floors,  cement 330 

Follicles,  ultimate 3,  6 

Food  as  a  factor  in  milk  production  47 

—  avoiding  flavors  due  to 21 

—  effect  of  on  flavor  of  milk 21 

on  composition  of  milk 30 


Index 


425 


Food  effect  on  quality  of  fat 30 

Foods,  necessity  for  succulent 50 

—  palatability  of 50 

—  relation  of  proteids  to  non-pro- 

teids 51 

Forage — relation  of  dry  to  bacteria .  119 

Fore  milk  and  strippings 30 

Formalin 121 

Formation  of  cheese  rind 263 

Formulae  for  total  solids 350 

Frappes 300,  301 

Fraser  cheese  press 262 

Freezers 306 

Freezing  ice  cream 305 

—  mixtures 306 

French  Canadian    cattle. 75 

Fright,  effect  on  milk  secretion 14 

Frothing  of  cream 218 

Fruit  ice  cream 301 

Federal  standard  for 367 

Galactose 25 

Gang  cheese  press 262 

Gaseous  fermentations 117 

Gases  in  milk 138 

Gas,  evolution  of  in  churning 219 

"Gassy"  curds 265 

Gassy      ferments      in      Neufchatel 

cheese 274 

Gathered  cream  system 341 

Gauges,  cream 78 

Gelatine 127,  128,  129,  131,  305 

—  lactose 129 

Gerber,   mentioned 92 

Gerber's  method 92 

Germs,  destruction  of  in  milk 120 

—  diseases 113 

—  flavor  producing 197 

-  lactic  acid 115 

—  of  disease 122 

—  of  fermentation 109 

Glands,  mammary 1 

Glasses,  cream 78 

Glassware,  Babcock,  calibration  of..  99 

test 95 

accuracy  of 99 

—  calibration  of  Babcock 359 

—  cleaning 130 

Babcock 107 

Globules,  fat 23 

Gloucester  cheese 280 

Glycerides 22 

Goat's  milk 16,  36 


PAGE 

Goat's  milk,  Federal  standard  for . .  366 

cheese,  Federal  standard  for .    367 

Gorgonzola  cheese 289 

Gouda  cheese 294 

Grades 53 

"Grading  up"  the  herd 58 

Grain  of  butter 230 

Granite  ice  cream 300 

Granules,  size  of  butter 221 

Gravimetric  analysis. ...    77 

Gravity,  creaming 164,  165 

—  separators 177 

—  specific 79,  82,  349 

—  system  of  creamery  construction .  327 

Grinding  curd 259 

Gruyere  cheese 289 

Guernsey  cattle **?". 65 

—  milk 33 

Gum  tragacanth 305 

Gurler,  H.  B.,  quoted 200 

Half  blood,  definition  of 53 

Hansen's  lactic  ferment 199 

Hard  cheeses 269 

Harris  curd  mill 259 

Hay,  relation  of  bacteria  to 119 

Heating  curds 255 

Heat,  sexual,  effect  on  milk  secretion  14 

Heeren's  pioscope 85 

Hegelund,  mentioned 40 

—  method  of  milking 40 

Herd,  formation  of  dairy 53 

-  "grading  up"  the 58 

—  maintenance  of  dairy 54 

—  official  inspection  of  diseased  .  .  .  143 

Hill,  Janet  McKenzie,  quoted 300 

Holding  up  milk 5 

Holstein  cattle 66 

—  Friesian  cattle 66 

milk 33 

Home  trade  cheese 270 

Homogenized  milk  and  cream 303 

Horizontal  separators 179 

Hot  iron  test 358 

Hueppe,  mentioned 115 

Hydrochloric  acid  in  ripening  cream  197 
Hydrometer 79 

Ice  cream 299 

caramel 310 

chocolate 310 

—  classification 300 

coffee. . .  .  .  .310 


426 


Index 


PAGE 

Ice  cream,  federal  standard  for 367 

—  fillers  for 305 

flavors 304 

freezers 306 

—  —  freezing  and  packing 305 

gum  tragacanth  for 305 

lemon 310 

macaroon 310 

—  maple 310 

mint 310 

orange 310 

quality  of  cream  for 304 

—  recipes 308 

score  card  for 312 

strawberry 310 

tutti  frutti 311 

walnut 310 

Ices 300 

Ideal  ration  for  cows 47 

Imitation  creamery  butter 346 

—  Swiss  cheese! 279 

Inbreeding 61 

Indicator,  litmus 351 

—  phenolphthalein 204,  351 

Individual  capacity  of  cows 41 

Infection,  prevention  of 118 

Inflow,  relation     of     to     complete 

creaming 182 

Iowa  Station  test 90 

Iron  clad  tinware 135 

Iron,  phosphate  of 25 

Jersey  cattle 64 

—  milk 33 

Jordan,  W.  H.,  quoted 173 

Jumbo  separator 191,  192 

Keeping  quality,  relation  of  lactic 

acid  to 207 

Kephir 324 

Kerry  cattle 75 

Knives,  curd 254 

Koenig,  quoted 17 

Koumiss 16,  324 

—  Federal  standard  for 367 

Laboratory,  bacteriological 126 

Lactation    period,    effect    on    com- 
position of  milk 27 

Lactic  acid 25,  116,  196,  208,  241 

determination  of 205,  351 

formation  of 198 

germs 115 


PAGE 

Lactic     acid    relation    to    keeping 
quality  of  butter 207 

—  fermentations 113,  115,  266 

—  ferments,  Hansen's 199 

Lactobutyrometer,  Marchand's 85 

Lactochrome 26 

Lactocrite,  De  Laval 87 

Lactometer 79 

—  Board  of  Health 80,  349 

—  comparison  of  scales 80 

—  correction  for  temperature 81 

—  Quevenne 80,  350 

—  scales,  comparison  of 80 

—  temperature  correction  for 350 

Lactoprotein, 26 

Lactos 301 

Lactoscope 86 

Lactose 25 

—  agar 129 

—  gelatine 129 

Lakenvelder  cattle 74 

Lancashire  cheese 280,  288 

Large  Danish  separator 191 

Laurie  acid 23 

Laurin 20 

Law,  dairy 365 

—  filled  cheese 382 

—  New  York  dairy 387 

—  oleomargarine 369 

"Leaky  cheese" 271 

LeFeldt  and  Lentsch,  mentioned  . .  .  178 

LeFeldt  and  Lentsch  separator 178 

Leff man  and  Beam,  mentioned 92 

Legal  standards 365 

for  milk 145 

cream 368 

Legislatio.n,  dairy 343 

Leicestershire  cheese 280,  288 

Lemon  ice  cream 310 

—  sherbet 311 

Lentsch  and  LeFeldt,  mentioned  . .  .  178 
Light  in  stables,  minimum  require- 
ments  153 

Limberger  cheese 277 

Lime,  phosphate  of 25 

Lime  salts. 247 

Litmus 129 

—  test 351 

Loss  of  fat  in  cheese  making 240 

Lymphatics 3 


Macaroon  ice  cream. .  .  . 
MacPherson  curd  mill .  . 


. . .310 
...260 


Index 


427 


PAGE 

Magnesia,  phosphate  of 25 

Major  dairy  breeds 63 

Males,  milk  from 10 

Mammae 1 

Mammalia 

Mammary  glands 1 

Mann's  acid  test 204 

—  A.  G.,  mentioned 204 

Maple  ice  cream 310 

Marchand's  lactobutyrometer 85 

Mare's  milk 16 

Marketing  butter 227 

Market  milk 135 

Markets,  dairy 346 

Marschall  rennet  test 244,  358 

Mason  butter  worker 224 

Maternity  effect  on  milk  secretion 

9,  35,  37 

Matting 257 

Meadow  sweet  cheese 279 

Media,  bacteriological 127 

Media,  standardization 128 

Medium  Brown  separator 191 

Membrane  on  curd 255 

Method,  Cochran's 91 

—  Gerber's 92 

—  of  Failyer  and  Willard 89 

—  Leffman  and  Beam 92 

—  Parson's .   90 

—  Short's 89 

—  Soxhlet's 87 

Metric  system 363 

Milk,  aeration  of 138 

—  aerators 139 

—  albuminoids  of 23 

—  analyses .    17 

—  as  affected  by  maternity 35 

—  ash  in 25 

—  asses' 16,  36 

-  Ayrshire 33 

—  bacteria  in Ill 

—  bad  flavors  in 143 

-  bitter 113,  143 

-  bottles 142 

-  bottling 142,  160 

—  certified 149 

—  cistern 5 

—  commercial 36 

—  composition  affected  by  age  of 

cow 31 

breed 33 

food 30 

of...  16 


PAGR 

Milk  concentrated 319 

—  condensed 316 

—  constituents  of 17 

—  control  of  animal  over  secretion .    14 

—  coolers 139 

—  cooling 138,  158,  241 

—  cows 16 

—  definition  of 1 

—  destruction  of  germs  in 120 

—  determination  of  bacteria  in.  .*.  .  125 

-  Devon 33 

—  difference  in  first  and  last  drawn .   30 

—  dipping 139 

—  diurnal  variation 29 

—  ducts 2,  5 

—  duration  of  flow 11 

—  effect  of  age  on  comp6sition 31 

—  breed  on  composition ....    32 

food  on  flavor  of 21 

pregnancy  on  flow 39 

—  evaporated 318 

—  ewes: 16 

—  fast  working 267 

—  fat,  Federal  standard  for 366 

-  fats 20 

—  Federal  standard  for 365 

—  fermentations , 108 

—  first  and  last  drawn 30 

—  for  cheese  making 233 

—  for  pasteurization 352 

—  from  farrow  cows 28 

males 10 

organs  other  than  the  mam- 
mary glands 10 

spayed  cows 28 

virgin  animals 10 

—  gases  in 138 

—  goat's 16,  36 

—  Guernsey 33 

—  holding  up 5 

—  Holstein-Friesian 33 

—  homogenized 303 

—  influence  of  food  on  composition  30 

—  Jersey •   33 

—  legal  standards  for. 145 

—  mare's 16 

—  market 135 

—  morning  and  night 28 

—  overripe 266 

—  pails,  covered 158 

—  paying  for  according  to  percent- 

age of  fat 238 

—  powders 320 


428 


Index 


Milk  preservaline 102 

—  production  of 35 

—  relation  of  breed  to 52 

food  to 47 

—  quality  of 144 

—  record,  largest 37 

—  relation  of  viscosity   to   churn- 

ing   210 

—  reservoir 5 

—  rich  and  poor  in  cheese  making.. 238 

—  ripening 242 

—  ropy  or  slimy 113 

—  sampler,  Scovell  aliquot 103 

—  secretion  of 7 

effect  of  animal  on 14 

• fright  on 14 

maternity  on 37 

pregnancy  on 12 

sexual  excitement  on  .   14 

incentives  to 9 

relation  of  blood  to 11 

of    nervous    organization 

to 14 

of  parturition  to 9 

—  selection  of  for  pasteurization. .  .  121 

—  sherbets 301 

pineapple 311 

—  Short  Horn 33 

—  signs 56 

—  skimmed 315 

—  slimy 113 

—  solids 16 

concerned  in  cheese  making . .  233 

—  souring  of 116 

—  specific  gravity  of 19 

—  standardization  of 353 

—  standards  for  certified 151 

—  State  standards  for 368 

—  sterile 109 

—  straining 137 

—  sugar 25,  321 

formation  of 9 

—  supply,  control  of 145 

—  testing 77 

—  tests,  Babcock 91 

Beimling 92 

Butyrometer 93 

Cochran's 91 

Failyer  &  Willard's 89 

Gerber's 92 

history  of 78 

Iowa  Station 90 

Parsons' ...  .  .   90 


PAGE 
Milk  tests,  Short's 89 

—  thief 101 

—  utensils,  care  of 160 

—  variation  in 17 

due  to  febrile  condition 29 

in  quality 27 

—  veins 56 

—  viscosity  of 210 

Milking 39,  157 

—  frequency  of 13 

—  habits  of  cows 41 

—  importance  of  complete 12 

regularity 13 

—  limit  of  frequency 40 

—  rapidity  of 14 

Mill,  curd 259 

Minor  dairy  breeds ,  .   63 

Mint  ice  cream 310 

Moisture  test,  Cornell  butter 359 

Molds 109 

Monrad,  J.  H.,  quoted 277,  323 

Monrad  rennet  test 243,  358 

Moore,  quoted 200 

Morning's  milk 28 

Mortensen,  quoted 301 

"Mother"  starters 202 

Mottled  butter 226 

Mousse,  cranberry 311 

Mousses 300,  301 

Myristic  acid 22 

Myristin 22 

Myseost 322 


alkali 


...204 


Neapolitan  ice  cream 300 

Nervous    organization,    relation    to 

milk  secretion 15 

Nesselrode  pudding 311 

Neufchatel  cheese 273 

Neumann,  quoted 102 

New  York  dairy  Law 387 

Night's  milk 28 

Nipple 2 

Nitrate  of  soda 102 

Non-volatile  fats 20,  22 

Normal  sodium  hydroxid 130 

—  fermentations 113 

Normandy  cattle 73 

Nut  ice  cream 301 

Nut  ice  cream,  Federal  standard.  .  .367 

Nutrient  bouillon 127 

Nutritive  ratio. . .  51 


Index 


429 


PAGE 

Odor,  animal 138 

"Off  flavor"  starters 201 

Official  inspection  of  cows 143 

Ohlssen's  test  bottle 96 

Oil  test  churn 84 

Oils,  essential  in  milk 20 

Oleic  acid 22 

Olein 22 

Oleomargarine 344 

Oleomargarine  law 369 

Oliver,  quoted 17 

Operation  of  milking 39 

Optimum  temperature 110 

Orange  ice  cream 310 

Overripe  milk 266 

Overripened  cream 208 

Oxygen  in  ripening  cream 197 

Packages,  butter 228 

Packing  butter 227 

—  ice  cream 305 

Pails,  covered  milk 158 

Palatability  of  foods 50 

Palmitic  acid 22 

Palmitin 22 

Paper  coil  method,  Adams 78 

—  parchment 229 

Parfait,  coffee 311 

—  walnut 310 

Parfaits 300,  301 

Parmesan  cheese 298 

Parsons,  C.  L.,  mentioned 90 

—  method 90 

Parturition,    relation     of     to    milk 

secretion 9 

Pasteurization 143 

—  apparatus 123 

—  of  milk 121 

—  selection  of  milk  for 123,  352 

Pasteurized  cream 147,  202 

—  milk,  Federal  standard  for 365 

Patrick,  Geo.  E.,  mentioned 90 

Paying  for  milk  according  to  per- 
centage of  fat 239 

Pearson,  R.  A.,  quoted 353 

Peptogenic  fermentations 113,  117 

Period  of  lactation 37 

Petri  dishes 134 

Phenolpthalein 204 

—  test 351 

Philadelphia  cream  cheese 277 

—  ice  cream 300 

Phosphate  of  iron 25 


PAGE 
Phosphate  of  lime 25 

—  of  magnesia 25 

—  of  potash 25 

Picnic  cheese 273 

Pietertje  2nd,  record  of 37 

Pineapple  cheese 273 

—  milk  sherbet 311 

—  souffle 311 

Pioscope,  Heeren's 85 

Plans  for  cheese  factories 327 

—  creameries 327 

Plating 132 

Pohl  curd  mill 260 

Points,  scale  of  for  cows 44 

Poisonous  fermentations 115 

Polled  cattle,  red 73 

Pont  L'Eveque  cheese  r*TT 297 

Port  du  Salut  cheese .298 

Potash,  caustic 102 

—  chloride  of 25 

—  phosphate  of 25 

Potassium  bichromate 102 

—  chloride 25 

Pot  cheese ; 322 

Precipitation  of  casein 24 

Pregnancy,    effect    on    composition 

of  milk 27 

on  milk  secretion 12,  39 

Preparation  of  artificial  starter 354 

Prepared  cheese 279 

Prepotency 59 

Preservaline,  milk 102 

Preservatives  in  composite  sampling  102 

Press,  cheese 262 

Pressed  tinware 136 

Pressing  cheese 261 

Prevention  of  infection 118 

Primost 322 

Print  butter 229 

Process  butter 346 

Federal  standard  for .366 

Production  of  cows,  value  of  records.  45 

—  of  milk,  relation  of  food  to 47 

Proteids,    relation    of    to    non-pro- 

teids  in  food 51 

Ptomaines 115 

Pudding  ice  cream 301 

Pumping  system  of  creamery  con- 
struction  328 

Punches 300,  301 

Pure  breds 53 

registration  of 54 

Putrefactive  fermentations. ...  113,  117 


430 


Index 


PAGE 

Quality  of  butter 229 

—  of  cheese 267 

—  of  cream  for  consumption 148 

—  of  cream  for  ice  cream 303 

—  of  milk  for  cheese  making 234 

—  of  milk  for  consumption 144 

legal  standards  for. .  .  145,  367 

variations  in 27 

Quevenne  lactometer 80,  350 

—  mentioned 80 

Rancid  butter 20 

Ratio,  nutritive 51 

Ration,  "balanced" 51 

—  for  cows,  the  ideal 47 

Reaction,  amphoteric 108 

Recipes  for  ice  cream 308 

Records  of  production,  value  of. ...   45 

Red  Polled  cattle 73 

References 404 

Register  of  merit 45 

Registration  of  pure  bred  animals.  .   54 
Rennet 234,  247,  252,  305 

—  extract. . : 248 

—  relation  of  temperature  to  activ- 

ity of 247 

—  tests 243 

—  test,  Marschall 358 

Monrad 358 

Renovated  butter 346 

Renovated   butter,    Federal    stand- 
ard for 366 

Reports   and  bulletins   of   Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Stations 404 

Reproduction  by  fission 109 

Richmond  formula  for  total  solids. .  350 

Richmond,  quoted 18 

Rind  of  cheese 268 

formation  of 263 

Ripeness,  churning  cream  of  differ- 
ent degrees 207 

Ripeness  of  cream,  relation  to  churn- 
ing  211 

Ripening  cheese 264 

—  cream 195 

amount  necessary 204 

effects  of 206 

hydrochloric  acid  in 197 

influence  of  lactic  acid 196 

relation  of  oxygen  to 197 

-  temperature  of 203 

use  of  starters  in 198 

—  ferments  preparation  of 354 


Ripening  milk,  for  cheese  making .  .  242 

Ropy  milk 113 

Roquefort  cheese 294 

Roughage 49 

Rules  and  tests 349 

Rudimentary  teats 56 

Russell,  H.  L.,  quoted. . . .  123,  147,  200 

Russian  separator  Sharpies 193 

Rusty  tinware 136 

Sage  cheese 272 

Salicylic  acid 121 

Salt 226,  306 

Salting  butter 224 

—  curd 260 

Salts  of  lime 247 

Sampler,  Scovell  aliquot  milk .103 

Sampling,  composite 102 

Sanitary  stables 152 

Scale  of  points  for  butter 232 

cheese 268 

cows 44 

Scales,  comparison    of    lactometer.  80 

of  thermometer 349 

Schmierkase 322 

Schweitzer  cheese 289 

Score  card  for  butter 232 

cheese 268 

ice  cream 312 

Scovell  aliquot  milk  sampler 103 

Scovell,  M.  A.,  mentioned 103 

"Scrub"  cows 53 

Secretion  of  milk 7 

Selecting  milk  for  pasteurizing 123 

Selection  of  breed 52 

-  of  bull 55 

—  of  cows 154 

Separation,  centrifugal 177 

—  of  cream 163 

Separator,  Accumulator 191 

—  adjustable 191 

—  Alexandra  Jumbo 191,  192 

—  Alpha  B 191 

—  Alpha  Baby 191 

—  Arnold's 191 

—  Baby 191 

—  bowls 179 

—  Columbia 191 

—  Danish  Weston 191 

—  De  Laval 191 

Alpha  No.  1 192 

Baby 193 

Standard...  ..193 


Index 


431 


PAGE 

Separator  dilution 4  .  .  .  177 

—  efficiency  of 190 

—  gravity 177 

—  horizontal 179 

—  large  Danish 191 

—  LeFeldt  and  Lentsch 178 

—  mechanical  devices  in  bowl  of .  .  185 

—  medium  Brown 191 

—  Sharpies 191 

Russian 193 

—  Simplex 186 

—  slime... 181 

—  small  Danish 191 

—  system 164 

—  theory  of  centrifugal 180 

—  tubular 188 

—  United  States 187,  191,  193 

—  Victoria 191 

Setting,  effect  of  delay  on  creaming .  171 

—  milk  for  cheese  making 251 

Seven-eighths  blood,  definition 54 

Sewers 331 

Sexual   excitement,    effect   on   milk 

secretion 14 

Shallow  pan  creaming 167 

—  system 164 

Sharpies  Russian  separator 193 

—  separator 191 

Sherbet,  lemon 311 

Sherbets 300,  301 

Short,  F.  G.,  mentioned 89 

Shorthorn  cattle 71 

Shorthorn  milk : 33 

Short's  method 89 

Simmenthal  cattle 75 

Simplex  separator 186 

Single  Gloucester  cheese 280 

Size  of  butter  granules 221 

—  fat  globules 116 

Sink,  curd 257 

Skim  milk .' 315 

cheese 269,345 

Federal  standard  for 367 

Federal  standard  for 365 

healthfulness  of 144 

testing  by  Babcock  method.    98 

—  test  bottle 96 

Skimmer 168 

Skimming 168 

Slime,  separator 18t 

Slimy  milk 113 

"Sloppy"  cheese 271 

Small  Danish  separator 191 


PAGE 

Soaking  curds 272 

Soda,  caustic 102 

—  chloride  of 25 

Sodium  hydroxid,  normal 130 

—  nitrate 102 

Soft  cheese 269 

Solids  concerned  in  cheese  making  . .  233 

—  estimation  of  total 107,  350 

—  formulae  for  total 350 

—  not  fat,  formulae  for 350 

relation  to  creaming 166 

—  total,  determination  of 77 

Soluble  ferments 234 

Souffle,  pineapple 311 

Souffles 301 

Souring  of  milk 116 

Soxhlet's  method .^ 87 

Spayed  cows,  milk  from. 28 

Specific  gravity 79,  82,  349 

of  milk 19 

Speed  of  bowl,  relation  of,  to  com- 
plete creaming 182 

Sphincter  muscle 4,  5 

Spirillum 109 

Spore 110 

Square  cream  cheese 277 

Stable,  care  of 156 

—  minimum  light  requirement 153 

—  removal  of  dust  in 156 

Stables,  sanitary 152 

—  standard  air  space 153 

Standardization  of  media 128 

—  of  milk  and  cream 353 

Standard  separator,  De  Laval 193 

Standards,  Federal 365 

—  feeding 48 

—  for  cream 148 

—  legal 365 

—  legal  milk 145 

—  State  for  milk  and  cream 368 

"Standing  up"  of  butter 196 

Starters 198,  245 

Starters,  "mother" 202 

—  "off  flavor" 201 

—  preparation  of 354 

"State  brands"  for  cheese 345 

State      standards     for     milk     and 

cream 368 

Statistics 338 

Stearic  acid 22 

Stearin 22 

Sterile  milk 109 

Sterilization 130,  143 


432 


Index 


PAGE 

Sterilization  of  milk 121 

Sterilized  milk,     Federal     standard 

for 365 

Stilton  cheese 280 

Stimulants  and  aromatics 50 

Stirred  curd  cheese 270 

Storch  mentioned 199 

Strainers 137 

Straining  milk 137 

Strawberry  ice  cream 310 

Streaked  butter 226 

Strippings 30 

Subearth  duct  for  curing  rooms ....  334 

Succulent  foods,  necessity  for 50 

Sugar  in  milk 25 

—  milk 321 

formation  of 9 

Sulphuric  acid 104 

Sunlight,  effect  on  cleanliness 136 

Surface  tension 23,  163 

Sweet  cream  butter 207 

—  curdling 113 

Sweetened  condensed  milk 316 

Federal  standard  for 366 

"Swelling"  of  cream 218 

Swiss  cattle,  Brown 73 

Swiss  cheese 279,  289 

imitation 279 

System,  butter  and  cheese  factory.  .341 

—  Cooley 169 

—  gathered  cream 341 

—  metric 363 

Table  butter  worker 224 

Tablets,  Farrington's  alkaline .  205,  351 

Taints,  detection  of 357 

Teat 2,  4 

Teats,  rudimentary  in  bulls 56 

Temperature,  best  for  churning.  .  .  .211 

—  correction  for  lactometer. . .  .81,  350 

—  effect  of  an  activity  of  rennet . . .  247 
churning 211 

—  for  deep  setting  creaming 169 

—  for  ripening  cheese 264 

cream 203 

shallow  pan  creaming 167 

—  washing  butter 221 

—  of     reading     fat     in      Babcock 

test 95,  106 

—  optimum 110 

—  relation  of  to  centrifugal  separa- 

tion  182 

to  churning 211 


PAGE 

Temperature,  rise  in  churning 219 

Test,  Babcock 91,  94 

calibration  of  glassware 359 

for  butter  or  cheese. .'. 359 

—  Beimling 92 

—  bottle  Babcock 96 

B.  and  W 96 

cream 96 

—  - —  detachable  neck 96 

double  necked 96 

Ohlssen 96 

skimmed  milk 96 

—  butyrometer 93 

—  churn  oil 84 

—  Cochran 91 

—  Cornell  butter  moisture 359 

—  Failyer  and  Willard' 89 

—  for  colostrum 18 

—  Gerber's 92 

—  history  of  milk 36 

—  hot  iron 358 

-  Iowa  Station 90 

—  litmus 351 

—  Mann's  acid 204 

—  Marschall  rennet 358 

—  Monrad  rennet 358 

—  Parsons' 90 

—  phenolphthalein 351 

—  rennet 243,  358 

—  Short's 89 

—  Wisconsin  curd 357 

Testing  Babcock  glassware 359 

—  co-operative  cow 47 

—  of  milk 77 

Tests,  acid 204 

—  and  rules 349 

Texture  of  butter 222,  230 

relation  of  wash  water  to  222 

—  of  cheese 268 

Theory  of  centrifugal  separator ....  180 
Thermometer,  centigrade 349 

—  Farhenheit 349 

—  scales,  comparison  of 349 

Three-quarter  blood,  definition 53 

—  bloods,  variation  in 61 

Tiemann,  quoted 197 

Tinware,  how  to  clean 136 

—  ironclad 135 

—  pressed 136 

—  rusty 136 


Tissue,  connective 3 

—  fatty. 


Titration  of  media 128 


Index 


433 


PAGE 

Total  solids,  determination  of 77 

formulae  for 350 

Truckle  cheese 273 

Tubercle  bacillus 122 

Tubular  separator 188 

Turbine  steam  Babcock .   95 

Tutti  frutti  ice  cream '.  .311 

Tyrotoxicon 115 

Udder 2,43 

-  caked 38 

Ultimate  follicles. 3,  6 

United  States  separator.  .187,  191t  193 

Urea 26 

Useful  rules  and  tests 349 

Utensils  care  of  milk 160 

Van  Slyke,  quoted 31,  235,  240 

Varieties  of  cheese 269 

Variation  in  three-quarter  bloods.. .   61 

Variations  in  quality  of  milk 27 

Vaudin,  quoted 18 

Vaughn,  quoted 115 

Veins,  milk 56 

Vertical  butter  worker 225 

Vessels  cleaning 119 

Victoria  separator 191 

Virgin  animals,  milk  from 10 

Visco-cream 147 

Viscogen 147 

—  preparation  of 352 

viscosity 164 

—  of  milk 210 

—  relation  of  to  churning...  .210 
• creaming 167 


PAGE 

Volatile  fats 20,  197 

—  source  of 21 

Von  Klenze,  quoted 269 

Walnut  ice  cream 310 

—  parfait 310 

Wash  water,  relation  of,  to  butter 

flavor 223 

—  texture  of  butter.  .222 
Washing  butter 220 

—  curds 272 

—  tinware 136 

Water  ices 300 

—  necessity  of  in  ration 50 

—  supply  of  creameries 331 

Wedge  shape  form 42 

Wells 331 

Wensleydale  cheese S.  .  .  .  280,  289 

"Wet"  cheese 271 

Whey 315 

—  cheese 322 

—  Federal  standards  for 367 

Wheyn 324 

Whey,  removal  of 249 

White  specks  in  butter 208 

Willard,  Professor,  mentioned 89 

Williams,  Jesse,  mentioned 341 

Wiltshire  cheese 280 

Wire  strainers,  size  of 137 

Wisconsin  curd  test 357 

Woll,  F.  W.,  quoted 94 

Working  butter 223 

Yeasts 109 

Young  America  cheese 273 


BB 


The  following  pages  contain  advertisements 
of  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production 

By  CLARENCE  H.  ECKLES 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  $1.60  net;  postpaid,  $1.73. 

The  author  has  brought  together  from  widely  scattered  sources  all 
the  information  necessary  to  acquaint  the  student  or  farmer  with  the 
principles  he  must  understand  and  practise  in  order  to  be  successful 
with  dairy  cattle.  He  takes  up  all  of  the  dairy  breeds,  their  characteris- 
tics and  adaptations.  The  selection  of  the  individual  cow,  calf-raising, 
management  of  the  cow,  breeding,  stable  construction,  as  well  as  a  con- 
sideration of  the  ailments  of  cattle,  likewise  come  in  for  detailed  treatment. 

The  book  will  render  great  assistance  to  the  practical  farmer  interested 
in  dairy  cattle,  who  will  find  the  material  presented  here  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  assist  him  to  care  properly  for  his  animals  and  to  produce 
milk  economically.  For  fifteen  years  Professor  Eckles  has  had  charge 
of  a  herd  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  cows,  including  all  the  leading  dairy 
breeds.  For  the  past  ten  years  he  has  been  teaching  in  the  University  of 
Missouri  where  he  is  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry.  His  combined 
experiences  have  well  fitted  him  for  the  task  of  writing  the  book  on 
dairy  cattle  and  milk  production. 

Milk:   Its  Nature  and  Composition 

By  C.  M.  AIKMAN 

Cloth,  180  pages,  illustrated,  12mo,  SI. 25  net;  by  mail,  $1.84. 

A  handbook  on  the  chemistry  and  bacteriology  of  milk,  butter  and 

cheese.    It  treats  of  the  causes  and  conditions  influencing  the  quality 

and  quantity  of  milk,  of  rennet  and  its  action,  and  of  the  importance  of 

bacteria  for  butter  and  in  cheese  making. 

The  Farm  and  the  Dairy 

By  J.  P.  SHELDON 

Fourth  revised  edition,  cloth,  158  pages,  illustrated, 
12mo,  $1.00  net;  by  mail,  $1.08. 

A  valuable  text-book  on  practical  dairying,  detailing  the  most  modern 
developments  in  dairy  farming. 

Dairy  Chemistry 

By  HARRY  SNYDER 

Cloth,  190  pages,  illustrated,  12mo,  $1.00  net;  by  mail,  $1.12. 
This  book  incorporates  the  results  of  the  more  important  recent 
investigations  in  dairying,  milk  tests,  etc.  A  chapter  treats  of  the  influ- 
ence of  different  foods  upon  the  quality  of  milk  and  dairy  products,  and 
on  the  rational  feeding  of  dairy  stock,  while  in  an  Appendix  are  given 
tables  of  the  composition  of  fodder  and  feeding  stuffs,  and  tables  for 
the  correction  of  lactometer  readings.  - 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit 

By  C.  S.  VALENTINE 

Cloth,  illustrated,  12mo,  $1.50  net;  postpaid,  $1.63 

"The  Plymouth  Rock,  Java,  Dominique,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island 
Red,  and  Buckeye  breeds  are  discussed  in  the  first  few  chapters.  Con- 
siderable attention  is  given  to  other  breeds  later  on.  Eighteen  beautiful 
half-tone  engravings  adorn  the  book.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  prac- 
tical farmer  and  poultry-grower,  we  consider  this  book  as  one  of  the 
very  best  of  its  kind.  The  author  is  evidently  an  experienced  poultry- 
man.  It  is  a  book  that  should  be  of  special  help  to  beginners  in  poultry, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  contains  much  information  for  the  expert." 

— Farmers'  Tribune. 

The  Beginner  in  Poultry 

By  C.   S.  VALENTINE 

Decorated  Cloth,  profusely  illustrated,  12mo,  $1.50  net;  postpaid,  $1.63 

It  has  been  estimated  that  of  the  five  million  people  who  are  raising 
poultry  in  this  country  today  half  have  gone  at  it  blindly.  And  it  is 
just  as  impossible  to  make  a  success  of  the  poultry  business  without 
preparation  as  it  is  impossible  to  succeed  in  any  other  business  without 
an  acquaintance  with  the  fundamentals.  The  difficulty  which  the 
novice  has  experienced  in  going  at  the  raising  of  chickens  systematically 
in  the  past  has  been  that  he  could  find  no  book  in  which  the  essentials — 
only  the  essentials  and  all  of  them — of  poultry-raising  are  given.  To 
write  such  a  book  has  been  Mr.  Valentine's  purpose  In  "The  Beginner 
in  Poultry"  he  discusses  the  different  breeds  of  fowls,  the  types  of  houses, 
feeding  and  the  kinds  of  food,  raising  chickens  for  the  market  and  for 
their  eggs,  diseases  and  their  cures  and  everything  else  which  will  be  of 
value  for  the  one  who  is  starting  out — and  much  for  the  seasoned  poul- 
try-raiser as  well. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


THE  RURAL  OUTLOOK  SET 

By  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University 

Four  Volumes.    Each,  cloth,  I2mo.    Uniform  binding,  attractively  boxed.    $5.00 
net  per  set;  carriage  extra.    Each  volume  also  sold  separately. 

In  this  set  are  included  three  of  Professor  Bailey's  most  popular  books  as  well  as  a 
hitherto  unpublished  one, — "The  Country-Life  Movement."  The  long  and  persist- 
ent demand  for  a  uniform  edition  of  these  little  classics  is  answered  with  the  publica- 
tion of  this  attractive  series. 

The  Country-Life  Movement 

Cloth,  12mo,  220  pages,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

This  hitherto  unpublished  volume  deals  with  the  present  movement  for  the  re- 
direction of  rural  civilization,  discussing  the  real  country-life  problem  as  distin- 
guished from  the  city  problem,  known  as  the  back-to-the-land  movement. 

The  Outlook  tO  Nature  (New  and  Revised  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  195  pages,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

In  this  alive  and  bracing  book,  full  of  suggestion  and  encouragement,  Professor 
Bailey  argues  the  importance  of  contact  with  nature,  a  sympathetic  attitude 
toward  which  "means  greater  efficiency,  hopefulness,  and  repose." 

The  State  and  the  Farmer  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

It  is  the  relation  of  the  farmer  to  the  government  that  Professor  Bailey  here  discusses 
in  its  varying  aspects.  He  deals  specifically  with  the  change  in  agricultural 
methods,  in  the  shifting  of  the  geographical  centers  of  farming  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  growth  of  agricultural  institutions. 

The  Nature  Study  Idea  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

"It  would  be  well,"  the  critic  of  The  Tribune  Farmer  once  wrote,  "if  'The  Nature 
Study  Idea'  were  in  the  hands  of  every  person  who  favors  nature  study  in  the 
public  schools,  of  every  one  who  is  opposed  to  it,  and,  most  important,  of  every 
one  who  teaches  it  or  thinks  he  does."  It  has  been  Professor  Bailey's  purpose  to 
interpret  the  new  school  movement  to  put  the  young  into  relation  and  sumpatby 
with  nature, — a  purpose  which  he  has  admirably  accomplished. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 


On  Selection  of  Land,  etc. 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead           .....  $1  60 

On  Tillage,  etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil 1  50 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land         ...  1  50 

F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage 1  50 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Fertilizers 1  25 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Forage  Crops 1  50 

J.  A.  Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture         „  1  25 

On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants      ....  1  25 

On  Garden-Making 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Garden-Making 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book    ....       ...  1  25 

On  Fruit-Growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning  Book 1  50 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits         .......  1  50 

On  the  Care  of  Live-stock 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals  ....  1  50 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals       ....  1  50 

•L  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse 1  25 

M.  W.  Harper's  Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses       .        .  1  50 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry.        .        .        .        .        .  1  25 

On  Dairy  Work,  Farm  Chemistry,  etc. 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products       ....  1  50 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  and  Country  Life   ....  1  50 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook         .        .  1  25 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare        .        .  1  25 

H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene 150 

J.  Green's  Law  for  the  American  Farmer      ....  1  50 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


THE  RURAL  MANUALS 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Manual  of  Farm  Animals 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Choosing,  Breeding  and   Keep   of   Horses, 
Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine. 

By  MERRITT  W.  HARPER 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture at  Cornell  University 

Illustrated,    decorated   cloth,   12mo,   545   pages,   index,  $2.00  net; 
by  mail,   $2.18 

"The  work  is  invaluable  as  a  practical  guide  in  raising  farm  animals." 

— Morning   Telegram. 

"A  book  deserving  of  close  study  as  well  as  being  handy  for  'reference,  and 
should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  farmer  interested  in  stock." — R->-.al  World. 

Manual  of  Gardening 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Making  of  Home  Grounds  and  the  Growing  of 
Flowers,  Fruits  and  Vegetables  for  Home  Use. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  544  pages,  $2.00  net;  by  mail,  $2.17 
This  new  work  is  a  combination  and  revision  of  the  main  parts  of  two  other 
books  by  the  same  author,  "Garden  Making"  and  "Practical  Garden  Book," 
together  with  much  new  material  and  the  result  of  the  experience  of  ten  added 
years.  Among  the  persons  who  collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  the  other  two 
books,  and  whose  contributions  have  been  freely  used  in  this  one,  are  C.  E.  Hunn, 
a  gardener  of  long  experience;  Professor  Ernest  Walker,  reared  as  a  commercial 
florist;  Professor  L.  R.  Taft,  and  Professor  F.  A.  Waugh,  well  known  for  their 
studies  and  writings  on  horticultural  subjects. 

A  STANDARD  WORK  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 

The  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book 

By  LIBERTY  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  $2.00  net 

When  Professor  Bailey's  "Horticulturist's  Rule  Book"  was  published  nearly 
twenty-five  years  ago,  the  volume  became  a  standard  agricultural  work  running 
through  sixteen  editions.  Taking  this  book  as  a  basis  the  author  has  now  made  a 
wholly  new  book,  extending  it  to  cover  the  field  of  general  farming,  stock-raising, 
dairying,  poultry-rearing,  horticulture,  gardening,  forestry,  and  the  like.  It  is 
essentially  a  small  cyclopedia  of  ready  rules  and  references  packed  full  from  coyer 
to  cover  of  condensed,  meaty  information  and  precepts  on  almost  every  leading 
subject  connected  with  country  life. 

IN    PREPARATION 

Manual  of  Home-Making.  Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Professor  of  Rural  Economy, 
Cornell  University. 

With  100  full-page  plates  and  more  than  2,000  illustrations 
in  the  text;  four  volumes;  the  set,  $20.00  net;  half  morocco, 
$32.00  net;  carriage  extra 

VOLUME  I— Farms  VOLUME  III— Animals 

VOLUME  II—  Crops  VOLUME  IV— The  Farm  and  the  Community 

"Indispensable  to  public  and  reference  libraries  .  .  .  readily 
comprehensible  to  any  person  of  average  education." — The  Nation. 

"The  completest  existing  thesaurus  of  up-to-date  facts  and  opinions 
on  modern  agricultural  methods.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  many  years 
must  pass  before  it  can  be  surpassed  in  comprehensiveness,  accuracy, 
practical  value,  and  mechanical  excellence.  It  ought  to  be  in  every 
library  in  the  country." — Record-Herald,  Chicago. 


Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

With  over  2,800  original  engravings;  four  volumes;  the  set, 
$20.00  net;  half  morocco,  $32.00  net;  carriage  extra 

"This  really  monumental  performance  will  take  rank  as  a  standard 
in  its  class.  Illustrations  and  text  are  admirable.  .  .  .  Our  own 
conviction  is  that  while  the  future  may  bring  forth  amplified  editions 
of  the  work,  it  will  probably  never  be  superseded.  Recognizing 
its  importance,  the  publishers  have  given  it  faultless  form.  The 
typography  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired,  the  paper  is  calculated  to 
stand  wear  and  tear,  and  the  work  is  at  once  handsomely  and 
attractively  bound." — New  York  Daily  Tribune. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


